Felicific Calculus:
Jeremy Bentham, an influential philosopher and one of the founders of utilitarianism, introduced the concept of "felicific calculus" as a key component of his ethical framework. Felicific calculus is a method for calculating the overall happiness or pleasure produced by a particular action or decision. Bentham's utilitarianism is centered on the principle of maximizing happiness or pleasure and minimizing pain or suffering for the greatest number of individuals.
The basic idea of felicific calculus involves evaluating the consequences of actions by considering various factors and assigning a quantitative measure to each. These factors include intensity, duration, certainty or uncertainty, propinquity or remoteness, fecundity, purity, and extent. Each factor contributes to the overall calculation of the pleasure or pain resulting from a specific action.
Bentham proposed that individuals should weigh these factors when making moral decisions. The goal is to choose actions that lead to the greatest overall happiness for the greatest number of people. Felicific calculus is essentially a systematic approach to moral decision-making based on the utilitarian principle of seeking the greatest good for the greatest number.
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Commonwealth:
John Locke's idea of the "commonwealth" is closely tied to his political philosophy, particularly as outlined in his work "Two Treatises of Government" (1690). In the context of Locke's writings, the term "commonwealth" refers to a political society or civil government formed by a social contract among individuals. Locke's concept of the commonwealth is grounded in the protection of natural rights and the pursuit of the common good.
Here are key points related to Locke's idea of the commonwealth:
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Social Contract:
- Locke argues that individuals initially exist in a state of nature, where they possess natural rights, including the rights to life, liberty, and property.
- The formation of the commonwealth involves individuals entering into a social contract, agreeing to establish civil government to protect their natural rights.
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Purpose of Government:
- The primary purpose of the commonwealth, according to Locke, is to secure and protect the natural rights of its members.
- Governments are created by the consent of the governed and exist to maintain order, resolve disputes, and defend against external threats.
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Limitations on Government:
- Locke emphasizes limitations on governmental power. The authority of the commonwealth is legitimate only as long as it serves the interests of the people and protects their rights.
- If a government oversteps its bounds or fails in its duties, Locke contends that the people have the right to alter or abolish it.
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Popular Sovereignty:
- The commonwealth, in Locke's view, is based on the principle of popular sovereignty. Political authority ultimately resides with the people, and the government derives its legitimacy from their consent.
Overall, Locke's idea of the commonwealth reflects his commitment to the protection of individual rights, the consent of the governed, and the establishment of a government that serves the common good.
New Democracy:
Mao Zedong's concept of New Democracy proposed a transitional stage between feudalism and socialism, advocating for a broad alliance of social classes, including the bourgeoisie, to achieve national independence, democracy, and social progress. It aimed to mobilize the masses for revolution while allowing the bourgeoisie to participate in rebuilding China, emphasizing unity against imperialism and feudalism.