All India Kisan Sabha, is the peasant or farmers' wing of the Communist Party of India, an important peasant movement formed by Sahajanand Saraswati in 1936.

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The All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) is the oldest trade union federation in India. It is associated with the Communist Party of India (CPI). Founded on 31 October 1920. Its founders are  Lala Lajpat Rai, Narayan Malhar Joshi, Diwan Chaman Lall, Joseph Baptista.

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Chambers of Commerce and Industry in India are voluntary, non-profit groups that work with the government to promote and improve domestic trade. Some of the chambers of commerce and industry in India include:

1. Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI): Founded in 1927, FICCI is one of the oldest and largest chambers in India, representing various sectors of the economy.
2. Confederation of Indian Industry (CII): Established in 1895, CII focuses on the development of industry in India and plays a key role in policy advocacy.
3. Indian Chamber of Commerce (ICC): Founded in 1925, ICC works to promote trade and industry, primarily in Eastern India.
4. Bombay Chamber of Commerce and Industry (BCCI): Established in 1836, it is one of the oldest chambers in Asia, representing the business community in Mumbai.

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Lions Clubs in India are the second largest group of volunteers in the world after USA, with 6,335 Clubs and 2,35,000 members. Lions can reach out to help anywhere across the country, even in the remotest locations. Lions Clubs was established in India, in Bombay, in February 1956.

The "Congress System," coined by Indian political scientist Rajni Kothari, describes the dominant position of the Indian National Congress in the early decades after India's independence. Kothari argued that the Congress functioned as an umbrella organization, encompassing diverse interests and ideologies, allowing it to maintain political dominance. Rather than suppressing opposition, the Congress co-opted various social groups and political factions, acting as a mediating force in India's pluralistic society. This system was marked by Congress's ability to adapt and absorb dissent, making it central to Indian politics while allowing space for regional and opposition parties to exist.

Rajni Kothari describes social movements and civil society organizations as "Non-Party Political Formation." In his analysis, Kothari highlights how these entities operate outside the traditional political party framework, engaging in advocacy, activism, and mobilization around specific social, economic, or environmental issues. He emphasizes that non-party formations play a crucial role in democratizing politics, enhancing civic engagement, and representing marginalized voices. Kothari's work underscores the significance of these organizations in influencing public policy and fostering political awareness, suggesting that they can complement or challenge established political parties in their quest for social change.

The Raytu Sangh, established in 1956, is a prominent farmers' organization in Andhra Pradesh, India. Founded by P. Subbarao, the union focuses on addressing the issues faced by farmers, including low crop prices, agricultural subsidies, and land rights.

Key aspects of the Raytu Sangh include:

• Focus: The organization advocates for fair prices for crops, better agricultural policies, and support for farmers’ economic conditions. It also works on issues related to irrigation, land tenure, and rural development.
• Activities: The Raytu Sangh is known for organizing protests, negotiations with government bodies, and mobilizing farmers to demand better policies and support.

P. Subbarao is the primary leader associated with the Raytu Sangh, recognized for his role in shaping the organization's direction and addressing the needs of farmers in Andhra Pradesh. The Raytu Sangh remains an influential voice in the state’s agricultural sector.

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The Chipko Movement (1973) was a pioneering environmental movement in Uttarakhand, India, known for its nonviolent resistance against deforestation. The movement's name, meaning "to hug" in Hindi, reflects the activists' strategy of hugging trees to prevent them from being cut down.

The Chipko Movement began in the village of Reni in the Chamoli district when local villagers, led by Gaura Devi, Chandi Prasad Bhatt, and Sunderlal Bahuguna, protested against the logging of trees by a contractor. The movement aimed to protect the forests, which were crucial for the local ecosystem and the livelihood of the villagers.

The activists' peaceful protests attracted national and international attention, leading to a government ban on commercial logging in the region. The Chipko Movement is celebrated for its role in raising awareness about environmental conservation and the rights of indigenous communities, and it inspired similar movements globally.

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The Shetkari Sanghatana, founded in 1979, is a prominent farmers' organization based in Maharashtra, India. The name translates to "Farmers' Union" in Marathi. The organization was established by Sharad Joshi, an influential leader and advocate for farmers' rights.

Key Aspects:

• Focus: The Shetkari Sanghatana primarily addresses issues related to agricultural policies, farmer welfare, and economic conditions. It campaigns for better prices for crops, fair trade practices, and policies to support small and marginal farmers.
• Activities: The organization is known for its advocacy work, organizing protests, and negotiating with the government to improve conditions for farmers. It also works on issues such as irrigation, land rights, and rural development.
• Impact: The Shetkari Sanghatana played a significant role in shaping agricultural policies in Maharashtra and has been involved in several successful campaigns for higher crop prices and better support for farmers.

The Shetkari Sanghatana continues to be a key player in advocating for farmers' issues in Maharashtra and has influenced broader agricultural policy discussions in India.

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Here is a list of notable works (books and articles) by Rajni Kothari, arranged chronologically by publication year:

Articles:

1. “The Congress ‘System’ in India” (1964) – Asian Survey
   • This article introduced the concept of the Congress System, explaining how the Indian National Congress functioned as the dominant political force.
2. "Caste in Indian Politics" (1970) – Economic and Political Weekly
   • A pivotal article analyzing how caste has evolved in India's democratic politics.

Books:

1. Politics in India (1970)
   • This book elaborates on Kothari's theories on Indian politics, including his ideas on the Congress system and the nature of political parties in India.
2. Caste in Indian Politics (1973)
   • A comprehensive study on the role of caste in India’s democratic framework and electoral politics.
3. Footsteps into the Future: Diagnosis of the Present World and a Design for an Alternative (1974)
   • A critical analysis of global political trends and possible future alternatives.
4. Democratic Polity and Social Change in India: Crisis and Opportunities (1976)
   • Examines India’s political landscape during periods of political crisis, including the Emergency era.
5. Politics and the People: In Search of a Humane India (1989)
   • Explores the relationship between politics and society in India, advocating for a more humane political process.
6. State Against Democracy: In Search of Humane Governance (1988)
   • Discusses how the state's expansion into various sectors weakened democratic governance.
7. Rethinking Democracy (2005)
   • A critique of contemporary democracy, its challenges, and the need for rethinking democratic governance in India.
8. Memoirs: Uneasy is the Life of the Mind (2002)
   • A reflective account of Kothari’s life and intellectual journey, offering insights into his views on politics and society.

These works cement Rajni Kothari's reputation as a pioneering thinker in Indian political sociology and democracy.

TRS

Bharat Rashtra Samithi (BRS), formerly known as Telangana Rashtra Samithi (TRS), is a regional political party in India, primarily active in Telangana. Founded by K. Chandrashekar Rao (KCR) in 2001, the party was instrumental in the movement for the creation of Telangana as a separate state, which was achieved in 2014. BRS has been the ruling party in Telangana since its formation, with K. Chandrashekar Rao serving as the Chief Minister. In 2022, the party rebranded itself as Bharat Rashtra Samithi, signaling its intention to expand its political presence beyond Telangana. 'Car' is the electoral symbol of  it.

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Shiromani Akali Dal - 1920

National Conference - 1939

DMK - 1949

Telugu Desam Party - 1982

Samajwadi Party - 1992

Rashtriya Janta Dal - 1997

Biju Janta Dal - 1997

Trinamool Congress - 1998

Janta Dal United - 1999

Yuvajan Shramik Rythu Congress - 2011

Aam Aadmi Party - 2012

The Planning Commission was formed following the recommendation of an Advisory Planning Board set up in 1946 under KC Neogy. It operated under the guidance of the National Development Council, which was established in 1952.

Books by Sudipta Kaviraj:

1. The Unhappy Consciousness: Bankim Chndra Chattopadhyay and the Formation of Nationalist Discourse in India (1995)
2. "The Imaginary Institution of India: Politics and Ideas" (2010)
3. "The Trajectories of the Indian State: Politics and Ideas" (2012)
4. The Invention of Private Life: Literature and Ideas (2014)
5. "Civil Society: History and Possibilities" (Edited with Sunil Khilnani, 2001)
6. "The Enchantment of Democracy and India" (2011)
7. "Modernity and Politics in India" (2018)

Edited Volumes:

1. "Politics in India" (2012)

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The Burden of Democracy (2003) was written by Pratap Bhanu Mehta 

Here is a list of notable works (books and articles) by Rajni Kothari, arranged chronologically by publication year:

Articles:

1. “The Congress ‘System’ in India” (1964) – Asian Survey
   • This article introduced the concept of the Congress System, explaining how the Indian National Congress functioned as the dominant political force.
2. "Caste in Indian Politics" (1970) – Economic and Political Weekly
   • A pivotal article analyzing how caste has evolved in India's democratic politics.

Books:

1. Politics in India (1970)
   • This book elaborates on Kothari's theories on Indian politics, including his ideas on the Congress system and the nature of political parties in India.
2. Caste in Indian Politics (1973)
   • A comprehensive study on the role of caste in India’s democratic framework and electoral politics.
3. Footsteps into the Future: Diagnosis of the Present World and a Design for an Alternative (1974)
   • A critical analysis of global political trends and possible future alternatives.
4. Democratic Polity and Social Change in India: Crisis and Opportunities (1976)
   • Examines India’s political landscape during periods of political crisis, including the Emergency era.
5. Politics and the People: In Search of a Humane India (1989)
   • Explores the relationship between politics and society in India, advocating for a more humane political process.
6. State Against Democracy: In Search of Humane Governance (1988)
   • Discusses how the state's expansion into various sectors weakened democratic governance.
7. Rethinking Democracy (2005)
   • A critique of contemporary democracy, its challenges, and the need for rethinking democratic governance in India.
8. Memoirs: Uneasy is the Life of the Mind (2002)
   • A reflective account of Kothari’s life and intellectual journey, offering insights into his views on politics and society.

These works cement Rajni Kothari's reputation as a pioneering thinker in Indian political sociology and democracy.

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A Grammar of Politics is written by - Harold Lasky in 1925.

Major Works and Contributions

Books

1. "Collective Choice and Social Welfare" (1970)
   • One of Sen's seminal works on welfare economics, this book explores how to aggregate individual preferences, welfare, and choices to reach collective decisions.
2. "Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation" (1981)
   • Sen introduces the concept of entitlements and argues that famines occur not due to a lack of food, but because of inequalities in food distribution and access.
3. "Choice, Welfare and Measurement" (1982)
   • A collection of essays where Sen addresses issues related to welfare economics, social choice, and individual preferences.
4. "Commodities and Capabilities" (1985)
   • This book outlines the early foundations of the Capability Approach, focusing on the relationship between economic resources and human well-being.
5. "The Standard of Living" (1987)
   • Based on Sen’s Tanner Lectures, this book delves into the concepts of wealth, quality of life, and the standard of living, introducing core ideas about capabilities.
6. "Inequality Re-examined" (1992)
   • In this work, Sen critically assesses different concepts of inequality and justice, advocating for the Capability Approach as a better metric for evaluating well-being and equality.
7. "Development as Freedom" (1999)
   • One of Sen's most famous works, this book argues that development should be seen as the expansion of people's freedoms, rather than simply economic growth. It emphasizes the role of political and social freedoms in enhancing well-being.
8. "Rationality and Freedom" (2002)
   • Sen explores the relationship between rationality, freedom, and human decision-making, drawing from economics and philosophy.
9. "Identity and Violence: The Illusion of Destiny" (2006)
   • This book examines the idea of identity and how it can lead to divisions and violence. Sen critiques the reductionist view of identity as a singular aspect of a person’s life.
10. "The Idea of Justice" (2009)
    • Sen critiques traditional theories of justice (such as those by John Rawls) and argues for a comparative approach to justice, focusing on the practical realization of justice through public reasoning and capabilities.
11. "The Argumentative Indian" (2005)
    • A collection of essays where Sen explores India's intellectual traditions and cultural diversity, emphasizing the role of argument and debate in Indian history.
12. "An Uncertain Glory: India and Its Contradictions" (2013) (co-authored with Jean Drèze)
    • This book assesses India's development, highlighting the stark contrast between its economic growth and continuing social inequalities, with a focus on public services, education, and healthcare.
13. "Home in the World: A Memoir" (2021)
    • Sen's memoir, where he reflects on his early life, education, and intellectual journey, including his experiences in India, England, and beyond.

Lloyd and Susanne Rudolph described India as a "weak-strong state" to capture the paradoxical nature of India's governance system, where the state simultaneously exhibits strengths and weaknesses depending on the context.

1. Weak State: The Rudolphs argued that India can be seen as a "weak" state because it often struggles to effectively implement policies, enforce laws, and maintain authority across its vast and diverse population. Bureaucratic inefficiency, corruption, and the state's inability to penetrate rural areas or regulate powerful local elites contribute to this weakness. Furthermore, the state’s capacity is frequently compromised by political pressures from various interest groups, reflecting the characteristics of a demand polity where social forces actively shape government actions.
2. Strong State: On the other hand, India is also a "strong" state because it maintains a robust constitutional framework, democratic institutions, and the ability to centralize power in critical moments. The central government has demonstrated its strength during periods of national crisis, such as the 1975 Emergency under Indira Gandhi, when it exerted top-down control, and in its ability to hold the nation together despite immense diversity and challenges of governance. The state also plays a pivotal role in managing economic development and orchestrating social and political reforms.

The "weak-strong" state characterization captures India’s dual capacity to function both as a responsive, participatory democracy (demand polity) and a centralized authority capable of exerting significant control when necessary (command polity). This tension reflects the complexity of India's governance, where the state must balance responsiveness with authority in a diverse and often fractious society.

This book presents numerous discussions of specific aspects of democratic politics, showing how ‘democracy’ can be projected as a model of deliberate imperfection – a model that tolerates various loose ends in the system – and how democracy recognizes a multiplicity of possible courses open to the system at any point in time. Against this backdrop, the book carefully analyzes the lifetime work of D.L. Sheth, which, seen as a whole, offers us with a theory of Indian politics.