Why?

However, it’s important to note that demanding accountability can involve multiple methods, not just one. Here are some ways:

1. Through Elections: Voting for or against politicians based on their performance.
2. Through Civil Society Actions: Activities by non-governmental organizations, media, and advocacy groups to hold officials accountable.
3. Through Budget Processes: Public participation in budgetary processes to ensure transparency and proper use of public funds.
4. Through Agitations on Streets: Protests and demonstrations to demand action or accountability from the government.

Politics: Who Gets What, When, How, which was first published in 1936, is the classic analysis of power and manipulation by ruling elites and counter-elites. The themes that occur throughout this essay have become the guideposts for most modern research in techniques of propaganda and political organization.

David Apter, a prominent political scientist, is well-known for his contributions to comparative politics and development studies. One of his most famous books is:

The Politics of Modernization (1965)

This book examines the process of modernization in developing countries and the political changes that accompany economic and social development. It provides a detailed analysis of the challenges and dynamics involved in modernizing traditional societies.

Aristotle, one of the greatest philosophers of ancient Greece, made significant contributions to a wide range of fields, including political theory, ethics, metaphysics, and natural sciences. Here are some important points about his thought:

Political Theory

1. Theory of Forms: Unlike his teacher Plato, Aristotle rejected the existence of abstract Forms. He believed that the form of an object is within the object itself, rather than existing in a separate, non-physical realm.
2. Politics and Ethics: Aristotle viewed politics as an extension of ethics. He believed that the purpose of the state is to promote the good life for its citizens.
3. Classification of Governments: Aristotle classified governments into three good forms (monarchy, aristocracy, and polity) and their corrupt counterparts (tyranny, oligarchy, and democracy).
4. Best Government: He argued that the best government is a polity, a mixed regime combining elements of democracy and oligarchy, tailored to the specific characteristics of the citizens.

Ethics

1. Virtue Ethics: Aristotle's ethical theory is centered on the concept of virtue. He argued that moral virtue is a mean between two extremes (deficiency and excess), a concept known as the "Golden Mean."
2. Eudaimonia: The ultimate goal of human life is eudaimonia, often translated as "happiness" or "flourishing." Eudaimonia is achieved through a life of virtuous activity in accordance with reason.
3. Practical Wisdom: Aristotle emphasized the importance of practical wisdom (phronesis), the ability to deliberate well about what is good and beneficial for oneself and others.

Metaphysics

1. Substance and Essence: Aristotle introduced the concepts of substance (ousia) and essence. He argued that substances are the fundamental realities, and their essence is what makes them what they are.
2. Four Causes: Aristotle proposed that there are four causes (explanations) for everything: material cause, formal cause, efficient cause, and final cause (purpose).

Natural Sciences

1. Teleology: Aristotle's view of nature is teleological, meaning that he believed everything in nature has a purpose or end goal (telos). This is evident in his biological works, where he studied the functions and purposes of different organs in living beings.
2. Classification of Living Beings: He made significant contributions to the classification and study of living organisms, laying the groundwork for later developments in biology.

Logic

1. Syllogism: Aristotle is known as the father of formal logic. He developed the theory of syllogism, a form of reasoning where a conclusion is drawn from two given or assumed propositions (premises).

Justice as "Resource egalitarianism" is primarily associated with the political philosopher Ronald Dworkin. In his influential work, Dworkin proposed the idea that justice should be concerned with ensuring an equal distribution of resources among individuals, rather than merely focusing on equalizing welfare or utility. This approach aims to provide individuals with equal starting points while respecting their personal choices and responsibilities.

Bentham on Representative Democracy:

Jeremy Bentham predominantly supported a form of democracy known as representative democracy or representative government. Bentham's political philosophy, influenced by utilitarian principles, favored a system where elected representatives make decisions on behalf of the people. He believed that representative democracy could effectively reflect the will of the majority and ensure the greatest happiness for the greatest number. While Bentham supported democratic principles, he also emphasized the importance of constitutional safeguards to prevent potential abuses of power and protect individual rights within the democratic framework.

In Thomas Hobbes' work "Leviathan," he describes liberty as the absence of opposition, where by "opposition" he specifically means "external impediments of motion." Hobbes' concept of liberty is often classified under the notion of negative liberty.

According to Hobbes, an individual is free as long as there are no external obstacles that prevent them from doing what they have the will, desire, or inclination to do. In "Leviathan," he states that "a free man is he that in those things which by his strength and wit he is able to do, is not hindered to do what he has a will to." This definition underscores the idea that freedom consists in the absence of physical or external constraints or impediments to action.

The first wave of feminism, which took place in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, was a major fight for women to have the same legal and political rights as men. The first wave of feminism, also known as the "suffragette movement", focused on gaining basic legal rights for women, such as:

• The right to vote,
• Own property,
• Access higher education
• File for divorce.

The movement's goal was to establish that women are equal to men in society, and that they should be treated as such by the law.

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Betty Friedan (1921–2006) was a leading figure in the second wave of American feminism. Her 1963 book The Feminine Mystique is often credited with sparking the second wave of feminism in the 20th century. Friedan's struggles against the "Feminine Mystique" and in favor of gender equality led to a fundamental transformation in how American society views women.

Friedan championed several causes for women, including:

• Equal pay for equal work,
• End to sexual harassment in the workplace,
• Legalization of abortion.

In 1966, Friedan co-founded and became the first president of the National Organization for Women (NOW), which aimed to bring women into American society in "fully equal partnership with men".  

Guillermo O'Donnell, an Argentine political scientist, introduced the concept of "delegative democracy" to describe a form of democracy that diverges from the traditional representative model. In a delegative democracy, once elected, leaders believe they have the authority to govern as they see fit, often with minimal checks and balances, until the next election. This concept is particularly relevant in the context of Latin American politics but can be applied to other regions as well.

Key characteristics of delegative democracy as described by O'Donnell include:

1. Centralization of Power: Elected leaders concentrate power in the executive branch, often bypassing or undermining other institutions.
2. Weakening of Institutions: Legislative, judicial, and other bodies that provide checks and balances are weakened or sidelined.
3. Electoral Mandate: Leaders interpret their electoral victory as a mandate to implement their vision without significant consultation or compromise.
4. Personalism: Leadership is often characterized by a strong, charismatic figure who dominates the political landscape.
5. Accountability: There is limited accountability between elections, with leaders often acting independently of public opinion or institutional constraints.

O'Donnell's analysis highlights the challenges and potential risks of this form of governance, where democratic principles are maintained superficially through elections, but deeper democratic practices and institutions are eroded.

Socialist pluralism, often associated with thinkers like Nicos Poulantzas, explores the idea of socialism existing within a pluralistic framework of political institutions and ideologies. Poulantzas was a prominent Marxist theorist who analyzed state power, class struggle, and the role of the state in capitalist societies. His work emphasized the complexity of state institutions and their relationship with social classes, challenging simplistic views of state power under capitalism.

Nicos Poulantzas is best known for several influential works in Marxist political theory. Here are some of his notable writings along with their publication years:

1. "Political Power and Social Classes" (1968) - This book examines the relations between social classes and political power, exploring how different class interests are represented within the state.
2. "Fascism and Dictatorship: The Third International and the Problem of Fascism" (1974) - In this work, Poulantzas analyzes the nature of fascism and its relationship to capitalism, drawing on the historical context of the interwar period.
3. "State, Power, Socialism" (1978) - This book is considered Poulantzas's major theoretical work, where he develops his ideas on the state, socialism, and the role of political power in capitalist societies.
4. "Classes in Contemporary Capitalism" (1979) - In this collection of essays, Poulantzas continues his analysis of social classes and their dynamics within capitalist societies.

These works have been influential in shaping debates within Marxist theory, political sociology, and studies of the state.

Michael Walzer, a prominent political theorist, has made significant contributions to the concept of citizenship and the theory of Critical Associationalism. Here’s an overview of his ideas:

Concept of Citizenship

In his work, Michael Walzer emphasizes a pluralistic view of citizenship, focusing on the idea of "complex equality." He argues that a just society should ensure equality across different spheres of social goods, such as politics, education, work, and leisure. Each sphere operates according to its own principles, and inequalities in one sphere should not influence access to goods in another.

Walzer's key points on citizenship include:

1. Pluralism: Walzer believes in the coexistence of multiple, overlapping communities within a society, each with its own norms and values.
2. Membership: Citizenship, for Walzer, is fundamentally about membership in a political community. He argues that membership confers certain rights and responsibilities, emphasizing the importance of belonging and participation in communal life.
3. Participation: Active participation in communal and political life is crucial. Walzer advocates for a participatory democracy where citizens are actively involved in decision-making processes.

Critical Associationalism

Critical Associationalism, as articulated by Walzer, revolves around the importance of associations and communities in political and social life. This theory emphasizes the role of various groups and associations in shaping individuals' identities and providing a space for democratic engagement.

Key aspects of Critical Associationalism include:

1. Associations as Mediating Structures: Walzer sees associations—such as religious groups, unions, clubs, and community organizations—as crucial mediating structures between individuals and the state. They provide a space for individuals to express their identities, interests, and values.
2. Democratic Engagement: These associations are essential for fostering democratic engagement. They offer opportunities for participation and deliberation, allowing individuals to practice democracy in their everyday lives.
3. Pluralism and Diversity: Walzer’s Critical Associationalism recognizes the diversity of modern societies. It values the plurality of associations and communities, each contributing to the richness of social life and the complexity of citizenship.
4. Critique of Centralized Power: Walzer is critical of centralized power and top-down approaches to governance. He argues that decentralization and the empowerment of local associations lead to a more vibrant and participatory democracy.

In summary, Michael Walzer’s concept of citizenship and Critical Associationalism underscores the importance of pluralism, community membership, and active participation in democratic life. He advocates for a society where various associations and communities play a central role in shaping individuals' identities and fostering democratic engagement.

The description of freedom as the "Silence of the Laws" is attributed to Thomas Hobbes. Hobbes, in his seminal work "Leviathan," characterized freedom in terms of the absence of external impediments to action. He argued that true freedom exists in a state of nature where there are no laws or societal constraints, allowing individuals to act according to their desires without fear of interference. This notion aligns with Hobbes's broader political philosophy, which emphasizes the importance of a strong central authority to maintain order and prevent the "war of all against all" that he believed characterized the state of nature.

Bentham on Raja Ram Mohan Roy:

Jeremy Bentham expressed admiration for Raja Ram Mohan Roy, a prominent social and religious reformer in 19th-century India. Bentham and Raja Ram Mohan Roy corresponded, and Bentham praised Roy for his efforts in advocating social and legal reforms in India. Bentham particularly appreciated Roy's work on abolishing the practice of Sati (the burning of widows) and his efforts towards social and educational improvements. Bentham's support for Raja Ram Mohan Roy reflected his endorsement of utilitarian principles and his recognition of individuals working towards social progress and the well-being of communities.

Gasset’s Theory of the Masses, as outlined in The Revolt of the Masses (1930), centers on the rise of the "mass man," an individual characterized by conformity, mediocrity, and a lack of critical thinking or personal responsibility. Gasset argued that the mass man, who demands rights without acknowledging duties, increasingly dominates modern society, leading to cultural and political decay. This shift undermines the influence of intellectual and moral elites who traditionally guide society. Gasset warned that this mass dominance erodes excellence, fosters authoritarianism, and risks societal stagnation by elevating average preferences over merit and expertise.