The scholar who famously categorized the "balance of power" into those four specific meanings is Ernst B. Haas.

In his 1953 article, "The Balance of Power: Prescription, Concept, or Propaganda?", Haas argued that the term was so poorly defined in international relations that it had become a "slippery" concept used more for rhetoric than for precise analysis.

Here is an explanation of the four ways he identified its usage:

1. As a Policy

In this context, the balance of power is a deliberate goal or a "prescription" for a state's foreign policy. A government actively works to manipulate the international environment to ensure no other state becomes too dominant.

• Example: Historically, Great Britain acted as the "balancer," intervening in continental Europe whenever one nation (like Napoleonic France) threatened to conquer the rest.

2. As an Actual State of Affairs

This refers to an objective description of the international system at any given moment. It is used as a synonym for the "current situation" or the "status quo" regarding how power is spread across the globe.

• Example: A political analyst might say, "The current balance of power in the Indo-Pacific is shifting," simply meaning the regional situation is changing.

3. As an Approximately Equal Distribution of Power

This is the most "literal" meaning of the word "balance." It describes a state of equilibrium where power is divided relatively evenly among major states, making it risky for any one state to start a war.

• Example: The Cold War was often described as a "balance of terror" or an equal distribution of power between the United States and the Soviet Union, where neither side could easily defeat the other.

4. As Any Distribution of Power

Haas noted that many writers used the term to describe any arrangement of power, even if it was completely lopsided. In this sense, "balance" loses its meaning of "equality" and simply becomes a synonym for "distribution."

• Example: One might refer to the "balance of power" in the early 1990s, even though the United States was the sole superpower (a unipolar moment), meaning the "power layout" favored one side.

Comparison with Hans Morgenthau

It is common to confuse Haas with Hans Morgenthau, as Morgenthau also listed four meanings in his book Politics Among Nations. However, Morgenthau’s fourth category was a "system" of international relations, whereas Haas’s fourth category was "any distribution" of power. Haas’s list is specifically designed to show how the term can be used as a "catch-all" phrase that lacks scientific precision.

The main advocate of the Democratic Peace Theory is Immanuel Kant.

He first proposed the idea in his famous work Perpetual Peace, where he argued that republican (democratic) states are less likely to go to war with each other.

Modern Advocates

In contemporary International Relations, the theory has been further developed and supported by scholars like:

• Michael Doyle
• Bruce Russett

Key Idea

Democratic Peace Theory suggests:

Democracies do not fight wars against other democracies.

The quote comparing power to the weather is attributed to Joseph S. Nye Jr., the prominent Harvard University professor and political scientist known for co-founding the neoliberal school of international relations and developing the concept of "soft power."

Context and Source

• The Writing: Joseph Nye first used this analogy in his highly influential book "Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power" (published in 1990). He also opened his landmark 1990 article, "Soft Power", in the journal Foreign Policy with this same observation.

• The Context: Writing at the end of the Cold War, Nye was addressing the shifting global landscape. He argued that while everyone was debating the "decline" of American power, most people were using an outdated, narrow definition of power—relying solely on military and economic might (hard power).

• The Meaning: By comparing power to the weather, Nye meant that although power is the central force in international politics (much like weather is to daily life), it is difficult to measure, define, or predict with absolute certainty. He used this analogy to introduce his theory that power was becoming less about "coercion" and more about "attraction"—which he termed Soft Power.

The Full Quote

In its expanded form, the passage often appears as:

"Power in international politics is like the weather. Everyone talks about it, but few understand it. Just as farmers and meteorologists attempt to forecast the weather, political leaders and commentators try to describe and predict shifting power dynamics."

Based on Hans Morgenthau’s Six Principles of Political Realism, as outlined in his classic work Politics Among Nations, the correct answer involves identifying which of those statements align with his core tenets.

Analysis of the Options:

• A. Politics is rooted in a permanent and unchanging human nature: Correct. Morgenthau’s first principle states that politics is governed by objective laws that have their roots in human nature, which is constant and does not change.

• B. Self-interest is a basic fact of the human condition: Correct. While this is a broader realist assumption, Morgenthau incorporates this into his second principle, focusing on the drive for power as an inherent part of human behavior in politics.

• C. Coercion is only part of foreign policy: Incorrect (in the context of his specific "Six Principles"). While Morgenthau acknowledges diplomacy, his formal principles focus on the concept of interest defined as power, rather than a specific clause stating coercion is "only part" of policy.

• D. National interest defined in terms of power: Correct. This is the "main signpost" of Morgenthau's theory (the second principle). He argues that we can only understand international politics by assuming that statesmen think and act in terms of interest defined as power.

Conclusion:

In the context of the JNU MA 2020 examination, the correct combination is A, B, and D.

Morgenthau's Six Principles (Summary)

To help you with similar questions, here is a quick refresher of the actual principles:

1. Objective Laws: Politics is governed by objective laws rooted in human nature.

2. Interest as Power: The concept of interest defined as power is the central link between reason and facts.

3. Variable Interest: Interest is a broad category, but its content is determined by the political and cultural context.

4. Moral Significance: Realism is aware of the moral significance of political action but maintains a tension between moral command and the requirements of successful political action.

5. National vs. Universal Morality: Realism refuses to identify the moral aspirations of a particular nation with the moral laws that govern the universe.

6. Autonomy of Politics: The political sphere is autonomous, distinct from legalism, moralism, or economics.

In his foundational work "Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace" (1948), Hans Morgenthau focuses on the realities of power politics.

Analysis of the Concepts

A. National Interest defined in terms of power

This is the "main signpost" of Morgenthau’s political realism. He argues that we cannot understand international politics through the motives or ideologies of leaders; instead, we must assume that states always act to protect their national interest, and that interest is always measured by the power they possess.

B. National power defined in terms of institutional power

Morgenthau does NOT define power this way. He views national power through elements like geography, natural resources, industrial capacity, military preparedness, population, and national character/morale. He is often critical of "institutional power" (like international law or organizations) when it lacks the backing of hard national power.

C. Balance of Power

Morgenthau devotes a significant portion of his book to the Balance of Power. He considers it a "natural" and inevitable outgrowth of the struggle for power. He describes it as a mechanism that functions to maintain the stability of the international system and prevent any single state from achieving total dominance.

D. Idea of World State

While Morgenthau is a realist, he concludes the later parts of his book by discussing the World State. However, he does so with a caveat: he believes a World State is the only logical way to achieve permanent peace in the nuclear age, but he argues it is impossible to achieve in the current climate because a "world community" (shared values and culture) must exist before a "world state" can be established. He believed that a world state, while necessary, would be a "totalitarian monster" without the foundation of a global community.

Explanation:

Rational Choice Theory in International Relations assumes that actors behave logically to maximize their interests.

• A. Individuals are emotional actors ❌
  → Incorrect. Rational choice assumes actors are rational, not emotional.
• B. States decide their actions rationally ✅
  → Correct. States are treated as rational decision-makers.
• C. State behavior is based on cost-benefit analysis ✅
  → Correct. This is a core principle of rational choice theory.
• D. States are the only actors ❌
  → Incorrect. Rational choice does not necessarily limit actors only to states; individuals and institutions can also be considered.

The Rational Choice approach in International Relations is not the work of a single thinker, but its strongest theoretical foundation comes from economists and political scientists.

Key Origin:

• Who: Anthony Downs
• When: 1957
• Book: An Economic Theory of Democracy

Explanation:

In this book, Anthony Downs applied economic reasoning (cost–benefit analysis, rational decision-making) to political behavior. This became the foundation of Rational Choice Theory, which was later extended to International Relations.

Further Development in IR:

Later scholars applied it to IR, especially:

• Kenneth Arrow
• Mancur Olson

ITU - International Telecommunication Union

• Established on 17 May 1864
• Headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland
• India is an active member

IOC - International Olympic Committee

• Established in June 1894
• Headquartered in Lausanne, Switzerland
• India is a member

PCA - Permanent Court of Arbitration

• Established in 1899
• Headquartered in Hague, Netherland
• India is a party

ILO - International Labour Organization

• Established in 1919
• Headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland
• India is a Founder member

ICC - International Chamber of Commerce

• Established in 1919
• Headquartered in Paris, France
• India is a member

Interpol - International Criminal Police Organization

• Established in 1923
• Headquartered in Lyon, France
• India is a member since 1949

BIS - Bank for International Settlements

• Founded on May 1930
• Reserve Bank of India is a member among the total Central banks of 60 other nations
• Headquartered in Basel, Switzerland

CoN - Commonwealth of Nations

• Founded on 11 December 1931
• India is a member among 53 others
• Headquartered in London, UK

IBRD - International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank)

• Established in 1944
• Headquartered in Washington DC, US
• India is a founding member

ICAO - International Civil Aviation Organization

• Established in 1944
• Headquartered in Montreal, Canada
• India is an elected member

FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

• Established on 16 October 1945
• Headquartered in Rome, Italy
• India is a founding member

UN - United Nations

• Established in October 1945
• Headquartered in New York, US
• India is a founding member

IMF - International Monetary Fund

• Established in December 1945
• Headquartered in Washington DC, US
• India is a Founder member

UNESCO - United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation

• Established in November 1946
• Headquartered in London, Uk
• India is a founding member

ISO - International Organization for Standardization

• Established in February 1947
• Headquartered in  Geneva, Switzerland
• India is a member

IMO - International Maritime Organization

• Established in March 1948
• Headquartered in London, UK
• India is an elected member

WHO World Health Organization

• Established in April 1948
• Headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland
• India is a founding member

CP - Colombo Plan

• Established in 1950
• Headquartered in Colombo, Sri Lanka
• India is a founding member of CP

EAS - East Asia Summit

• Established in 1950
• Headquartered in Colombo, Sri Lanka
• India is a founding member

IDA - International Development Association

• Established on 26 September 1950
• Headquartered in Washington DC, US
• India is a founder member

CERN - European Organization for Nuclear Research 

• Established in 1954
• Headquartered in Geneva
• India is an associate member of CERN

IFC - International Finance Corporation

• Established in July 1956
• Headquartered in Washington DC, US
• India is a Founder member

AALCO - Asian-African Legal Consultative Organization

• Was constituted on 15 November 1956.
• Originally known as the Asian Legal Consultative Committee (ALCC)
• Founding Members: India, Indonesia, Iraq, Japan, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Egypt & Syrian Arab Republic
• The Headquarters of AALCC in New Delhi

IAEA - International Atomic Energy Agency

• Established in 1957
• Headquartered in Vienna, Austria
• India is a founding member

NAM - Non-Aligned Movement

• Established in 1961
• Headquartered in Jakarta, Indonesia
• India is a founder member

Source - http://lib.jnu.ac.in/sites/default/files/RefrenceFile/oxfordhb-9780199219322-e-12.pdf

• Poor public schools
• Lack of quality health centers, food markets, parks, and recreational facilities
• Higher rates of arrest and incarceration
• Damaged health
• Lower incomes and educational attainment
• Higher homicide rates

__________

Favelas are shantytowns in Brazil that are often characterized by segregation and economic deprivation.

__________

The French banlieues are suburban neighborhoods beyond city boundaries. These communities have evoked social controversy for many decades. They are usually marked by socioeconomic characteristics and diverse ethno-racial compositions leading to unfortunate stereotyping of cultural identities.

Saskia Sassen's book, "Losing Control?: Sovereignty in an Age of Globalization" (1996), indeed examines the erosion of sovereignty through several dimensions:

1. Economic Citizenship: Sassen argues that economic globalization undermines the ability of nation-states to fully control economic activities within their borders. This includes the increasing mobility of capital, the rise of transnational corporations, and the impact of global financial markets.
2. Immigration: She discusses how migration flows challenge traditional notions of state sovereignty by creating transnational populations that straddle multiple jurisdictions. This can lead to tensions between national immigration policies and the rights and movements of migrants.
3. Territoriality: Sassen explores how globalization weakens the territorial basis of state power. Technologies, such as telecommunications and the internet, allow for activities that transcend physical borders, posing challenges to traditional state control over territory.

Her analysis highlights these interconnected processes as key factors reshaping the sovereignty of nation-states in the face of globalization.