The "Congress System," coined by Indian political scientist Rajni Kothari, describes the dominant position of the Indian National Congress in the early decades after India's independence. Kothari argued that the Congress functioned as an umbrella organization, encompassing diverse interests and ideologies, allowing it to maintain political dominance. Rather than suppressing opposition, the Congress co-opted various social groups and political factions, acting as a mediating force in India's pluralistic society. This system was marked by Congress's ability to adapt and absorb dissent, making it central to Indian politics while allowing space for regional and opposition parties to exist.

Sanskritization: One of Srinivas's most influential concepts, Sanskritization describes the process by which lower-caste groups seek upward social mobility by emulating the rituals, practices, and lifestyles of higher castes, particularly Brahmins. This theory highlighted the fluidity and adaptability within the caste system, challenging the earlier static views.

Dorjee founded the Sikkim Praja Mandal in 1945 and served as its first president. Dorjee also became president of the Sikkim State Congress in 1953 and served as president until 1958. In 1962, Dorjee helped to found the Sikkim National Congress political party.

The chronology of states' bifurcation in India after 1956:

• 1960 - Bombay state split into Maharashtra and Gujarat
• 1963 - Nagaland carved out of Assam
• 1966 - Haryana and Himachal Pradesh carved out of Punjab state
• 1972 - Meghalaya , Manipur and Tripura were formed
• 1975 - Sikkim became part of Indian union
• 1987 - Goa and Arunachal Pradesh became states (earlier these were UTs)
• 2000 - Uttaranchal (out of UP), Jharkhand (out of Bihar) and Chhattisgarh (out of Madhya Pradesh) were formed
• Telangana (out of Andhra Pradesh), when it was eventually created in 2014, became India's 29th state.

First-past-the-post system

In the Block Vote System, voters have as many votes as there are seats to be filled, and the candidates with the highest number of votes win. This system is used in multi-member constituencies and is a plurality/majority system, similar in nature to the first-past-the-post system used in single-member districts.

Kohli's "crisis of governability" thesis essentially captures the inability of the Indian state to manage and mediate conflicting demands within a highly diverse and socially mobilized society. Political fragmentation, weak institutions, and economic and social inequalities interact to produce a governance crisis, which manifests as ineffective administration, policy paralysis, and weak state authority.

Vaikom Satyagraha (from 30 March 1924 to 23 November 1925), was a nonviolent agitation for access to the prohibited public environs of the Vaikom Temple in the Kingdom of Travancore. Kingdom of Travancore was known for its rigid and oppressive caste system. The campaign, led by Congress leaders T. K. Madhavan, K.

Major Works and Contributions

Books

1. "Collective Choice and Social Welfare" (1970)
   • One of Sen's seminal works on welfare economics, this book explores how to aggregate individual preferences, welfare, and choices to reach collective decisions.
2. "Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation" (1981)
   • Sen introduces the concept of entitlements and argues that famines occur not due to a lack of food, but because of inequalities in food distribution and access.
3. "Choice, Welfare and Measurement" (1982)
   • A collection of essays where Sen addresses issues related to welfare economics, social choice, and individual preferences.
4. "Commodities and Capabilities" (1985)
   • This book outlines the early foundations of the Capability Approach, focusing on the relationship between economic resources and human well-being.
5. "The Standard of Living" (1987)
   • Based on Sen’s Tanner Lectures, this book delves into the concepts of wealth, quality of life, and the standard of living, introducing core ideas about capabilities.
6. "Inequality Re-examined" (1992)
   • In this work, Sen critically assesses different concepts of inequality and justice, advocating for the Capability Approach as a better metric for evaluating well-being and equality.
7. "Development as Freedom" (1999)
   • One of Sen's most famous works, this book argues that development should be seen as the expansion of people's freedoms, rather than simply economic growth. It emphasizes the role of political and social freedoms in enhancing well-being.
8. "Rationality and Freedom" (2002)
   • Sen explores the relationship between rationality, freedom, and human decision-making, drawing from economics and philosophy.
9. "Identity and Violence: The Illusion of Destiny" (2006)
   • This book examines the idea of identity and how it can lead to divisions and violence. Sen critiques the reductionist view of identity as a singular aspect of a person’s life.
10. "The Idea of Justice" (2009)
    • Sen critiques traditional theories of justice (such as those by John Rawls) and argues for a comparative approach to justice, focusing on the practical realization of justice through public reasoning and capabilities.
11. "The Argumentative Indian" (2005)
    • A collection of essays where Sen explores India's intellectual traditions and cultural diversity, emphasizing the role of argument and debate in Indian history.
12. "An Uncertain Glory: India and Its Contradictions" (2013) (co-authored with Jean Drèze)
    • This book assesses India's development, highlighting the stark contrast between its economic growth and continuing social inequalities, with a focus on public services, education, and healthcare.
13. "Home in the World: A Memoir" (2021)
    • Sen's memoir, where he reflects on his early life, education, and intellectual journey, including his experiences in India, England, and beyond.

Sathya Shodhak Samaj, founded in 1873 by social reformer Jyotirao Phule in Maharashtra, aimed to uplift the marginalized and oppressed communities, particularly the lower castes and women, from the domination of Brahmins and upper-caste Hindus. The organization sought to promote social equality, education, and economic rights for all, especially the so-called untouchables and other disadvantaged groups.

Phule’s movement challenged the caste system and religious orthodoxy, advocating for the rights of peasants and laborers. The Samaj encouraged self-respect, rationalism, and the rejection of caste-based discrimination. Phule's work laid the foundation for later social reform movements in India. His ideology of equality and anti-casteism greatly influenced figures like B.R. Ambedkar in their struggle for social justice.

Article 315 of the Indian Constitution establishes the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) and the State Public Service Commissions. The article also provides guidelines for the composition, appointment, removal, duties, and functions of these commissions.
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• A. Mexico City – UN Conference (1975): The first World Conference on Women held in Mexico City.
• B. Copenhagen – UN Conference (1980): The second World Conference on Women held in Copenhagen.
• D. Nairobi (1985): The third World Conference on Women held in Nairobi.
• C. Beijing (1995): The fourth World Conference on Women held in Beijing.

The state of Madras was officially renamed Tamil Nadu on January 14, 1969. The name change was a reflection of the state's Tamil identity, as "Tamil Nadu" means "The Land of the Tamils." The renaming was part of a broader movement to emphasize the cultural and linguistic heritage of the Tamil people.

The then Chief Minister was C. N. Annadurai.

EVOLUTION OF THE COMMISSION

Originally, Article 338 of the Constitution provided for the appointment of a Special Officer for Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) to investigate all matters relating to the constitutional safeguards for the SCs and STs and to report to the President on their working3. He was designated as the Commissioner for SCs and STs and assigned the said duty.

In 1978, the Government (through a Resolution) set up a non-statutory multimember Commission for SCs and STs; the Office of Commissioner for SCs and STs also continued to exist.

In 1987, the Government (through another Resolution) modified the functions of the Commission and renamed it as the National Commission for SCs and STs4 .

Later, the 65th Constitutional Amendment Act of 1995 provided for the establishment of a high level multi-member National Commission for SCs and STs in the place of a single Special Officer for SCs and STs. This constitutional body replaced the Commissioner for SCs and STs as well as the Commission set up under the Resolution of 1987.

Again, the 89th Constitutional Amendment Act of 20036 bifurcated the combined National Commission for SCs and STs into two separate bodies, namely, National Commission for Scheduled Castes (under Article 338) and National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (under Article 338-A).

The separate National Commission for SCs came into existence in 2004. It consists of a chairperson, a vice-chairperson and three other members. They are appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and seal. Their conditions of service and tenure of office are also determined by the President.

Source: Indian Polity authored by M. Laxmikanth

The concept of the "vote bank" was first highlighted in the writings of Indian sociologist and political scientist M. N. Srinivas. He used the term to describe how certain political parties in India built a loyal base of voters, typically from specific caste, religious, or community groups, by catering to their needs and interests through patronage and policies. This concept has since become widely used in Indian political discourse to explain how politicians mobilize support by focusing on identity-based groups rather than broader ideological platforms.

M. N. Srinivas in his 1955 paper entitled The Social System of a Mysore Village. 

The seats reserved for Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST) in educational institutions, legislative bodies, and government jobs in India are based on constitutional provisions. Here is an overview:

Constitutional Provisions

1. Article 330 and Article 332 of the Indian Constitution:
   • These articles provide for the reservation of seats for SC and ST in the Lok Sabha (House of the People) (Article 330) and State Legislative Assemblies (Article 330).
2. Article 16(4) and Article 16(4A):
   • These articles empower the State to make provisions for the reservation of appointments or posts in favor of any backward class of citizens (including SC/ST) who are not adequately represented in services under the State.
3. Article 15(4):
   • This allows the State to make special provisions for the advancement of socially and educationally backward classes, including SC and ST, in educational institutions.

Seat Reservation in Legislatures:

• Lok Sabha (House of the People):
  • 84 seats are reserved for Scheduled Castes (SC).
  • 47 seats are reserved for Scheduled Tribes (ST).
  • Total: 131 reserved seats out of 543 seats.
• State Legislative Assemblies:
  • The reservation varies based on the SC/ST population in each state. Specific state-wise details are available depending on the population distribution.

Revisionist Theory of Modernity

Sudipta Kaviraj’s revisionist approach to modernity delves deeper into the complexities and pluralities of how modernity is experienced in non-Western societies, particularly focusing on the Indian context. Here are key aspects of his theory and comparative insights:

1. Decentering Eurocentric Modernity
Kaviraj argues that the conventional European model of modernity, often characterized by a linear progression from feudalism to capitalism, industrialization, and liberal democracy, is not universally applicable. Non-Western societies, especially those that underwent colonization, have experienced modernity in fragmented and unique ways. This decentering emphasizes that modernity is not merely a European export but is reinterpreted, reshaped, and experienced differently across the world.

2. Colonial and Post-Colonial Dynamics
Kaviraj examines how colonial powers imposed certain modern institutions and ideas—like state bureaucracy, legal systems, and educational models—that often conflicted with pre-existing social and cultural structures. The modernity that emerged in colonies was marked by a duality: while modern institutions took root, they adapted and intertwined with traditional norms and practices. This hybridization means that modernity in places like India cannot be neatly compared to its Western counterpart.

3. Multiplicity of Modernities
His theory supports the concept of “multiple modernities,” which suggests that each society crafts its own path to modernization based on its historical, cultural, and political context. In India, for example, democratic principles were adopted but were inflected with pre-existing social stratifications like caste and community identities, creating a complex political culture that differs from Western liberal democracies.

4. Social and Political Structures
Kaviraj analyzes how traditional hierarchies and social structures adapt to and resist modern state practices. He notes that modernity in India was not only about importing institutions but also involved redefining social power. For example, while European modernity often led to the dissolution of feudal hierarchies, in India, modern statehood paradoxically reinforced some forms of traditional authority (e.g., local elites leveraging colonial and post-colonial power structures).

5. Public Sphere and Political Discourse
In his discussions, Kaviraj explores the evolution of the public sphere in post-colonial settings. Unlike the European Enlightenment model, where the public sphere emerged alongside capitalist markets and print culture, India's public sphere developed through a complex blend of indigenous practices and colonial legacies. This led to a distinctive political discourse where modern democratic ideals coexist and sometimes conflict with deep-rooted social norms and community-centric values.

6. The Ambiguities of Modernization
Kaviraj often highlights the paradoxes within non-Western modernities: while modernization brings promises of equality, technology, and progress, it also exacerbates inequalities and generates new conflicts. In the Indian context, modernization has contributed to economic growth and greater political participation but has also deepened social divides and triggered identity-based politics.

Here is the chronological order of the languages conferred with Classical Language status by the Government of India:

1. Tamil (2004)
2. Sanskrit (2005)
3. Kannada (2008)
4. Malayalam (2013)
5. Odia (2014)

The Dalit Panthers is a social organisation that seeks to combat caste discrimination. It was led by a group of Mahar writers and poets, including Raja Dhale, Namdeo Dhasal, and J. V. Pawar in some time between the second and the third semester of 1972.

Kohli argues that while an alliance between the state and the business class often drives development policies, it does not inherently rule out the possibility of redistributive policies. Kohli’s analysis recognizes that even in cases where the state forms coalitions with business elites to drive growth, there can still be political pressure or strategic reasons to pursue some level of social welfare measures or redistributive policies. This can happen when there is a need to maintain social stability, manage political mobilization from disadvantaged groups, or broaden the state’s legitimacy among the populace.

In his works, particularly in State-Directed Development (2004), Kohli highlights this delicate balance between growth-oriented policies favoring the entrepreneurial class and the need for redistributive concessions to maintain political stability and social harmony.

1. The State and Poverty in India: The Politics of Reform (1987)
   In this influential work, Kohli explores the relationship between state interventions and poverty alleviation in India. He examines why certain states succeed in implementing reforms while others do not, with a focus on state capacity and political leadership.
2. Democracy and Discontent: India’s Growing Crisis of Governability (1990)
   This book deals with India's political challenges and the emerging crisis of governability in the late 20th century. Kohli focuses on the growing regionalism, political fragmentation, and weakening of state authority.
3. State-Directed Development: Political Power and Industrialization in the Global Periphery (2004)
   One of Kohli’s most influential works, this book compares the role of state power in industrial development in different countries, including India, South Korea, and Brazil. Kohli categorizes states into three types—cohesive-capitalist, fragmented-multiclass, and neopatrimonial—and examines their effectiveness in driving development.
4. Poverty Amid Plenty in the New India (2012)
   In this work, Kohli explores how India’s economic growth has coexisted with persistent poverty and rising inequality. He attributes this paradox to the nature of India’s political and economic institutions.
5. Imperialism and the Developing World: How Britain and the United States Shaped the Global Periphery (2020)
   This book analyzes the impact of British and American imperialism on the political and economic structures of developing countries. Kohli examines how these colonial and post-colonial influences shaped the path of development in different parts of the world.
6. Greed and Guns: Imperial Origins of the Developing World (1922)

Aggañña Sutta is the 27th sutta of the Digha Nikaya collection (Pāli version). The sutta describes a discourse imparted by The Buddha to two brahmins, Bharadvaja and Vasettha, who left their family and varna to become monks.

The Ambatta Sutta is another significant discourse by the Buddha that addresses the caste system. Found in the Digha Nikaya of the Pali Canon, this sutta features a dialogue between the Buddha and a Brahmin named Ambatta.

In the Ambatta Sutta, the Buddha challenges the notion of caste-based superiority. The conversation highlights that social status and spiritual worth are not determined by birth or lineage but by one's actions and moral conduct. The Buddha asserts that qualities such as wisdom, ethical behavior, and virtuous living are what truly define a person's worth, rather than their caste or social background.

This sutta reinforces the Buddha's stance against the caste system, emphasizing that all individuals, regardless of their caste, have the potential to attain enlightenment and moral excellence.