Sanskritization: One of Srinivas's most influential concepts, Sanskritization describes the process by which lower-caste groups seek upward social mobility by emulating the rituals, practices, and lifestyles of higher castes, particularly Brahmins. This theory highlighted the fluidity and adaptability within the caste system, challenging the earlier static views.

Sanskritization: One of Srinivas's most influential concepts, Sanskritization describes the process by which lower-caste groups seek upward social mobility by emulating the rituals, practices, and lifestyles of higher castes, particularly Brahmins. This theory highlighted the fluidity and adaptability within the caste system, challenging the earlier static views.

The Right Against Exploitation is enshrined in Article 23 and Article 24 of the Indian Constitution and aims to protect individuals from various forms of exploitation.

Key Provisions:

1. Article 23:
   • Prohibits human trafficking and forced labor. It states that "traffic in human beings and beggar and other similar forms of exploitation are prohibited."
   • It also prohibits any form of forced labor, making it illegal for anyone to be compelled to work against their will.
2. Article 24:
   • Prohibits the employment of children below the age of 14 years in hazardous industries and mines, as well as in any other hazardous conditions.
   • This article aims to safeguard children from exploitation and ensure their right to education and a healthy childhood.

Significance:

• The Right Against Exploitation is crucial in upholding the dignity and rights of individuals, especially marginalized groups such as women, children, and laborers.
• It provides a legal framework to combat human trafficking, child labor, and forced labor, contributing to the broader objectives of social justice and equality in India.
• This right empowers citizens to seek legal remedies against exploitative practices and strengthens the overall labor rights framework in the country.

Overall, the Right Against Exploitation is an essential aspect of human rights protection in India, promoting the welfare and dignity of all individuals.

Karl Marx characterized peasants as "sacks of potatoes" and "epitome of backwardness." Marx viewed peasants as passive and lacking in political consciousness, largely because they were seen as subsisting on traditional agricultural methods and resistant to social change. This perspective was part of Marx's broader critique of the peasantry in contrast to the more dynamic and revolutionary working class.

The Shiromani Akali Dal (SAD) played a significant role in the 2020-2021 farmers' protests in India, particularly in Punjab. The party, led by Sukhbir Singh Badal and earlier by Parkash Singh Badal, has been a major political force in Punjab and a vocal advocate for farmers' rights.

Key Roles:

• Opposition to Farm Laws: The SAD was strongly opposed to the three farm laws passed by the Indian Parliament in September 2020, which were perceived to favor large corporations and undermine the Minimum Support Price (MSP) system. The party supported the farmers' demand for the repeal of these laws.
• Political Support: The SAD lent political weight to the protest by publicly supporting the farmers’ cause and demanding the government address their concerns. This included participating in demonstrations and advocating for the farmers' demands in political forums.
• Resignation: In October 2020, the SAD withdrew from the NDA (National Democratic Alliance), citing the government's refusal to address the concerns of farmers and the passage of the contentious laws.

The Shiromani Akali Dal’s involvement highlighted the intersection of political dynamics and grassroots activism in the farmers' protest movement.

The author of the provocatively titled article "An Anti-Secularist Manifesto" is Ashis Nandy. Ashis Nandy is a renowned Indian political psychologist, social theorist, and critic who has written extensively on various aspects of Indian society, including politics, culture, and the role of secularism in India. His works often challenge conventional views and provoke debate on key societal issues.

Lloyd and Susanne Rudolph described India as a "weak-strong state" to capture the paradoxical nature of India's governance system, where the state simultaneously exhibits strengths and weaknesses depending on the context.

1. Weak State: The Rudolphs argued that India can be seen as a "weak" state because it often struggles to effectively implement policies, enforce laws, and maintain authority across its vast and diverse population. Bureaucratic inefficiency, corruption, and the state's inability to penetrate rural areas or regulate powerful local elites contribute to this weakness. Furthermore, the state’s capacity is frequently compromised by political pressures from various interest groups, reflecting the characteristics of a demand polity where social forces actively shape government actions.
2. Strong State: On the other hand, India is also a "strong" state because it maintains a robust constitutional framework, democratic institutions, and the ability to centralize power in critical moments. The central government has demonstrated its strength during periods of national crisis, such as the 1975 Emergency under Indira Gandhi, when it exerted top-down control, and in its ability to hold the nation together despite immense diversity and challenges of governance. The state also plays a pivotal role in managing economic development and orchestrating social and political reforms.

The "weak-strong" state characterization captures India’s dual capacity to function both as a responsive, participatory democracy (demand polity) and a centralized authority capable of exerting significant control when necessary (command polity). This tension reflects the complexity of India's governance, where the state must balance responsiveness with authority in a diverse and often fractious society.

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Kohli's "crisis of governability" thesis essentially captures the inability of the Indian state to manage and mediate conflicting demands within a highly diverse and socially mobilized society. Political fragmentation, weak institutions, and economic and social inequalities interact to produce a governance crisis, which manifests as ineffective administration, policy paralysis, and weak state authority.

Revisionist Theory of Modernity

Sudipta Kaviraj’s revisionist approach to modernity delves deeper into the complexities and pluralities of how modernity is experienced in non-Western societies, particularly focusing on the Indian context. Here are key aspects of his theory and comparative insights:

1. Decentering Eurocentric Modernity
Kaviraj argues that the conventional European model of modernity, often characterized by a linear progression from feudalism to capitalism, industrialization, and liberal democracy, is not universally applicable. Non-Western societies, especially those that underwent colonization, have experienced modernity in fragmented and unique ways. This decentering emphasizes that modernity is not merely a European export but is reinterpreted, reshaped, and experienced differently across the world.

2. Colonial and Post-Colonial Dynamics
Kaviraj examines how colonial powers imposed certain modern institutions and ideas—like state bureaucracy, legal systems, and educational models—that often conflicted with pre-existing social and cultural structures. The modernity that emerged in colonies was marked by a duality: while modern institutions took root, they adapted and intertwined with traditional norms and practices. This hybridization means that modernity in places like India cannot be neatly compared to its Western counterpart.

3. Multiplicity of Modernities
His theory supports the concept of “multiple modernities,” which suggests that each society crafts its own path to modernization based on its historical, cultural, and political context. In India, for example, democratic principles were adopted but were inflected with pre-existing social stratifications like caste and community identities, creating a complex political culture that differs from Western liberal democracies.

4. Social and Political Structures
Kaviraj analyzes how traditional hierarchies and social structures adapt to and resist modern state practices. He notes that modernity in India was not only about importing institutions but also involved redefining social power. For example, while European modernity often led to the dissolution of feudal hierarchies, in India, modern statehood paradoxically reinforced some forms of traditional authority (e.g., local elites leveraging colonial and post-colonial power structures).

5. Public Sphere and Political Discourse
In his discussions, Kaviraj explores the evolution of the public sphere in post-colonial settings. Unlike the European Enlightenment model, where the public sphere emerged alongside capitalist markets and print culture, India's public sphere developed through a complex blend of indigenous practices and colonial legacies. This led to a distinctive political discourse where modern democratic ideals coexist and sometimes conflict with deep-rooted social norms and community-centric values.

6. The Ambiguities of Modernization
Kaviraj often highlights the paradoxes within non-Western modernities: while modernization brings promises of equality, technology, and progress, it also exacerbates inequalities and generates new conflicts. In the Indian context, modernization has contributed to economic growth and greater political participation but has also deepened social divides and triggered identity-based politics.

Sudipta Kaviraj, a prominent political scientist and scholar of Indian political thought, has argued that the relationship between the Indian elite and the masses is characterized by 'mutual incomprehension'. Kaviraj points out that this disconnect arises from different worldviews, cultural understandings, and experiences. The elite, often influenced by Western education and modernist ideas, may struggle to fully grasp the concerns, needs, and perspectives of the broader, more diverse population. Conversely, the masses may view the elite with skepticism, seeing them as distant or out of touch with local realities and traditional life. This mutual misunderstanding affects political dynamics and the functioning of democracy in India.

• Some seats are reserved in Lok Sabha for the members of the Schedule Castes and Scheduled Tribes. As per the order issued by the Delimitation Commission in 2008 , 412 are general, 84 seats are reserved for Scheduled Castes and 47 seats for the Scheduled Tribes .
• Article 330 grants for reservation of SC and ST the in Lok Sabha.
• Article 332 grants for reservation of SC and ST the in Legislative Assembly.
• According to the Indian Constitution, the Central Government provides special grants for the welfare of the Scheduled Tribe (ST) community through Article 275(1), which guarantees grants-in-aid from the Consolidated Fund of India for promoting the welfare of Scheduled Tribes.
• According to the Indian Constitution, reservation of seats in public services and employment for the Scheduled Tribe (ST) community is primarily governed by Article 16(4) and Article 335; where Article 16 deals with equality of opportunity in public employment, and Article 335 specifically states that the claims of SCs and STs should be considered when making appointments, while maintaining administrative efficiency.
• According to the Indian Constitution, reservation of seats in educational institutions for the Scheduled Tribe (ST) community is primarily covered under Article 15(4), which allows the state to make special provisions for the advancement of socially and educationally backward classes, including Scheduled Tribes, thereby enabling reservation in educational institutions and jobs.

The only tribal leader whose portrait is installed in the Parliament of India’s Museum is Birsa Munda. He was a prominent freedom fighter and tribal leader from the Munda tribe in the late 19th century. Birsa Munda led a tribal religious movement, which posed a significant challenge to British colonial rule in the Chota Nagpur Plateau region (present-day Jharkhand and surrounding areas). His contributions to India's struggle for independence and his efforts to uplift the tribal community have been recognized by honoring him in the Parliament's Museum.

• Tamil (2004)
• Sanskrit (2005)
• Kannada (2008)
• Malayalam (2013)
• Odia (2014)

1. The State and Poverty in India: The Politics of Reform (1987)
   In this influential work, Kohli explores the relationship between state interventions and poverty alleviation in India. He examines why certain states succeed in implementing reforms while others do not, with a focus on state capacity and political leadership.
2. Democracy and Discontent: India’s Growing Crisis of Governability (1990)
   This book deals with India's political challenges and the emerging crisis of governability in the late 20th century. Kohli focuses on the growing regionalism, political fragmentation, and weakening of state authority.
3. State-Directed Development: Political Power and Industrialization in the Global Periphery (2004)
   One of Kohli’s most influential works, this book compares the role of state power in industrial development in different countries, including India, South Korea, and Brazil. Kohli categorizes states into three types—cohesive-capitalist, fragmented-multiclass, and neopatrimonial—and examines their effectiveness in driving development.
4. Poverty Amid Plenty in the New India (2012)
   In this work, Kohli explores how India’s economic growth has coexisted with persistent poverty and rising inequality. He attributes this paradox to the nature of India’s political and economic institutions.
5. Imperialism and the Developing World: How Britain and the United States Shaped the Global Periphery (2020)
   This book analyzes the impact of British and American imperialism on the political and economic structures of developing countries. Kohli examines how these colonial and post-colonial influences shaped the path of development in different parts of the world.
6. Greed and Guns: Imperial Origins of the Developing World (1922)

Atul Kohli describes India as a "laboratory for comparative political analysis" due to its vast diversity in social structures, economic development, and political systems within a single nation-state. This phrase captures Kohli’s recognition of India’s complexities and its potential to provide insights into broader political and developmental phenomena.

The Capability Approach, developed by economist and philosopher Amartya Sen, is a conceptual framework used to evaluate individual well-being, social arrangements, and the development of societies. It emphasizes the real freedoms or capabilities people have to lead the kind of life they value, rather than merely focusing on material wealth or economic resources.

Key aspects of the Capability Approach include:

1. Capabilities: These refer to the substantive freedoms or opportunities that individuals have to achieve valuable outcomes. For example, the ability to be healthy, to pursue education, or to participate in social and political activities are all capabilities.
2. Functionings: These are the various states of being and activities that a person can achieve, such as being well-nourished, being literate, or being employed. Functionings are the actual achievements, while capabilities are the potential to achieve.
3. Focus on Individuals: The approach centers around individual freedom and agency. It evaluates how well individuals can convert available resources into functionings they value, considering factors like personal characteristics, social norms, and environmental conditions.
4. Comprehensive View of Development: Instead of focusing solely on economic indicators like GDP, the Capability Approach looks at the real freedoms and opportunities that individuals have. Development, from this perspective, means expanding people's capabilities to live a fulfilling life.
5. Justice and Inequality: The Capability Approach provides a way to think about social justice by identifying the gaps in capabilities between different groups. It recognizes that inequalities in education, healthcare, and social participation can limit people's freedoms and well-being, even if economic resources are available.

In summary, the Capability Approach shifts attention from traditional measures of economic development to a broader understanding of human well-being, focusing on what people can actually do and be in their lives.

Rajni Kothari described the nature of the Indian state as “Incremental Democratic Modernisation.” In his analysis, Kothari emphasized that India’s democratic development and modernization processes have been gradual and evolving rather than abrupt or revolutionary. He highlighted how the Indian state has adapted to various social, economic, and political changes through incremental reforms that seek to balance tradition with modernity. This concept reflects Kothari's view that while India faces challenges in governance and social justice, its democratic institutions and practices continue to evolve, enabling a dynamic yet complex relationship between democracy and development in the country.

"Bullock Cart Capitalism" is a term coined by Lloyd and Susanne Rudolph to describe India's economic system, particularly its blend of modern and traditional practices. The concept highlights the coexistence of advanced capitalist development with pre-industrial, agrarian practices, symbolized by the continued use of bullock carts in rural areas alongside modern industries.

The main point is that India’s economic growth has been shaped by its ability to incorporate both capitalist and traditional elements, reflecting the country's complex social and economic structure. While certain sectors, especially urban and industrial ones, have embraced modern capitalist methods, rural areas often rely on age-old practices, creating a dual economy. This synthesis of modernity and tradition allows for economic development while maintaining cultural continuity, but it also creates disparities in progress, particularly between urban and rural areas.

Bullock Cart Capitalism thus reflects India's unique pathway of development, where modern capitalism coexists with traditional economies.

Lloyd and Susanne Rudolph formulated the tussle between a "demand polity" and a "command polity" to explain the dynamic tension between two modes of governance in India: popular participation and state authority.

1. Demand Polity refers to a political system where various social groups, classes, and interest groups actively place demands on the state. These demands arise from the mobilization of civil society, political parties, and mass movements, reflecting India’s democratic character. The state, in a demand polity, is expected to respond to these pressures by accommodating societal interests, often through negotiation and compromise.
2. Command Polity, by contrast, refers to a more authoritarian and top-down governance model where the state imposes directives on society with limited scope for societal influence or feedback. The state controls resources and policies, prioritizing stability and order over participation, particularly in moments of crisis or under regimes that centralize power.

The tussle arises from the balancing act between these two tendencies in Indian democracy. While India is a vibrant demand polity due to its democratic institutions and participatory politics, it also experiences phases of command polity, particularly during periods of strong, centralized leadership (e.g., Indira Gandhi's Emergency in 1975-1977). The Rudolphs highlight this ongoing struggle as central to understanding India's governance, where both popular participation and state authority continuously influence policy outcomes.

Lloyd and Susanne Rudolph described India as a "weak-strong state" to capture the paradoxical nature of India's governance system, where the state simultaneously exhibits strengths and weaknesses depending on the context.

1. Weak State: The Rudolphs argued that India can be seen as a "weak" state because it often struggles to effectively implement policies, enforce laws, and maintain authority across its vast and diverse population. Bureaucratic inefficiency, corruption, and the state's inability to penetrate rural areas or regulate powerful local elites contribute to this weakness. Furthermore, the state’s capacity is frequently compromised by political pressures from various interest groups, reflecting the characteristics of a demand polity where social forces actively shape government actions.
2. Strong State: On the other hand, India is also a "strong" state because it maintains a robust constitutional framework, democratic institutions, and the ability to centralize power in critical moments. The central government has demonstrated its strength during periods of national crisis, such as the 1975 Emergency under Indira Gandhi, when it exerted top-down control, and in its ability to hold the nation together despite immense diversity and challenges of governance. The state also plays a pivotal role in managing economic development and orchestrating social and political reforms.

The "weak-strong" state characterization captures India’s dual capacity to function both as a responsive, participatory democracy (demand polity) and a centralized authority capable of exerting significant control when necessary (command polity). This tension reflects the complexity of India's governance, where the state must balance responsiveness with authority in a diverse and often fractious society.

The Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, 1976 is a significant piece of legislation in India aimed at eradicating the practice of bonded labor. Bonded labor, also known as debt bondage, is a form of forced labor where individuals are compelled to work to repay a debt or other obligations, often under exploitative conditions and without freedom.

Key Features of the Act:

1. Abolition of Bonded Labour: The Act legally abolished all forms of bonded labor and declared the practice illegal. It freed all bonded laborers from their obligations to their creditors.
2. Prohibition of Bondage Agreements: Any agreement or contract that binds a person into bonded labor due to debt is rendered void under the Act, whether verbal or written.
3. Immediate Release of Bonded Labourers: Individuals under bonded labor were to be freed immediately, and their debts were considered null and void.
4. Penalties: The Act imposes penalties for anyone who practices, enforces, or abets bonded labor. It includes imprisonment up to three years and fines.
5. Vigilance Committees: The Act mandates the formation of vigilance committees at the district and sub-divisional levels to ensure its implementation, monitor the release and rehabilitation of bonded laborers, and prevent future exploitation.
6. Rehabilitation of Freed Labourers: Freed bonded laborers are entitled to rehabilitation through various government schemes and programs to help them reintegrate into society and gain sustainable livelihoods.

This Act was an important step toward addressing labor exploitation in India, though the challenge of effectively implementing the law continues to require attention.

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V. V. Giri, the fourth President of India (1969–1974), was closely associated with the trade union movement in India.

His Role in the Trade Union Movement:

• V. V. Giri was a prominent labor leader and actively worked for the welfare of workers and the improvement of labor conditions.
• He was involved with the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) and later became the President of the All India Railwaymen’s Federation.
• He played a significant role in the labor movement during the colonial period, advocating for workers' rights, fair wages, and better working conditions.
• Giri also served as the Minister of Labour in the Congress government before becoming the President of India.

His background in labor rights and trade union activism made him a key figure in shaping labor policies in independent India.

The Subaltern School is an important historiographical approach that emerged in the 1980s, focusing on the history of marginalized and oppressed groups, or the "subaltern," in colonial and postcolonial societies. The school sought to challenge the dominant narrative of Indian history, which had largely been written from the perspective of elites, whether colonial rulers or indigenous leaders.

Founded by Ranajit Guha and other historians like Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Dipesh Chakrabarty, and Partha Chatterjee, the Subaltern School aimed to give voice to peasants, workers, tribals, and other marginalized communities whose perspectives were often overlooked in mainstream histories.

The movement drew inspiration from Gramscian ideas of hegemony and focused on how these groups resisted domination. It reshaped the understanding of colonialism, nationalism, and class struggles, promoting a "history from below." Although influential, the school has been critiqued for its focus on fragmentation over unity and its reliance on postcolonial theory.

Article 315 of the Indian Constitution establishes the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) and the State Public Service Commissions. The article also provides guidelines for the composition, appointment, removal, duties, and functions of these commissions.
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Major Tribes in India: Arranged State-wise

Andhra Pradesh:  Andh, Sadhu Andh, Bhagata, Bhil, Chenchus (Chenchawar), Gadabas, Gond, Goundu, Jatapus, Kammara, Kattunayakan, Kolawar, Kolam, Konda, Manna Dhora, Pardhan, Rona, Savaras, Dabba Yerukula, Nakkala, Dhulia, Thoti, Sugalis, Banjara, Kondareddis, Koya, Mukha Dhora, Valmiki , Yenadis, Sugalis, Lambadis.

Arunachal Pradesh: Apatanis, Abor, Dafla, Galong, Momba, Sherdukpen, Singpho, Nyishi, Mishmi, Idu, Taroan, Tagin, Adi, Monpa, Wancho

Assam: Chakma, Chutiya, Dimasa, Hajong, Garos, Khasis, Gangte, Karbi, Boro, Borokachari, Kachari, Sonwal, Miri, Rabha, Garo

Bihar: Asur, Baiga, Birhor, Birjia, Chero, Gond, Parhaiya, Santhals, Savar, Kharwar, Banjara, Oraon, Santal, Tharu

Chhattisgarh: Agariya, Bhaina, Bhattra, Biar, Khond, Mawasi, Nagasia, Gond, Binjhwar, Halba, Halbi, Kawar, Sawar,

Goa: Dhodia, Dubia, Naikda, Siddi,Varli, Gawda.

Gujarat: Barda, Bamcha, Bhil, Charan, Dhodia, Gamta, Paradhi, Patelia, Dhanka, Dubla, Talavia, Halpati, Kokna, Naikda, Patelia, Rathawa, Siddi.

Himachal Pradesh: Gaddis, Gujjars, Khas, Lamba, Lahaulas, Pangwala, Swangla, Beta, Beda Bhot, Bodh.

Jammu and Kashmir: Bakarwal, Balti, Beda, Gaddi, Garra, Mon, Purigpa, Sippi, Changpa, Gujjar.

Jharkhand:  Birhors, Bhumij, Gonds, Kharia, Mundas, Santhals, Savar, Bedia, Ho, Kharwar, Lohra, Mahli, Parhaiya, Santal, Kol, Banjara.

Karnataka: Adiyan, Barda, Gond, Bhil, Iruliga, Koraga, Patelia, Yerava, Hasalaru, Koli Dhor, Marati , Meda, Naikda, Soligaru.

Kerala: Adiyan, Arandan, Eravallan, Kurumbas, Malai arayan, Moplahs, Uralis, Irular, Kanikaran, Kattunayakan, Kurichchan, Muthuvan.

Madhya Pradesh: Baigas,  Bhils, Bharia, Birhors, Gonds, Katkari, kharia, Khond, Kol, Murias, Korku, Mawasi, Pardhan, Sahariya,

Maharashtra:  Bhaina, Bhunjia, Dhodia, Katkari, Khond, Rathawa, Warlis, Dhanka, Halba, Kathodi, Kokna, Koli Mahadev, Pardhi, Thakur,

Manipur: Naga, Kuki, Meitei, Aimol, Angami, Chiru, Maram, Monsang, Paite, Purum, Thadou, Anal, Mao, Tangkhul, Thadou, Poumai Naga.

Meghalaya: Chakma, Garos, Hajong, Jaintias Khasis, Lakher, Pawai, Raba, Mikir.

Mizoram: Chakma, Dimasa, Khasi, Kuki, Lakher, Pawi, Raba, Synteng, Lushai

Nagaland:  Angami, Garo, Kachari, Kuki, Mikir, Nagas, Sema, Ao, Chakhesang, Konyak, Lotha, Phom, Rengma, Sangtam,

Odisha:  Gadaba, Ghara, Kharia, Khond, Matya, Oraons, Rajuar, Santhals, Bathudi, Bathuri, Bhottada, Bhumij, Gond, Juang, Kisan, Kolha, Kora, Khayara, Koya, Munda, Paroja, Saora, Shabar, Lodha.

Rajasthan: Bhils, Damaria, Dhanka, Meenas(Minas), Patelia, Sahariya, Naikda, Nayaka, Kathodi.

Sikkim:  Bhutia, Khas, Lepchas, Limboo, Tamang

Tamil Nadu: Adiyan, Aranadan, Eravallan, Irular, Kadar, Kanikar, Kotas, Todas, Kurumans, Malayali,

Telangana: Chenchus.

Tripura: Bhil, Bhutia, Chaimal, Chakma, Halam, Khasia, Lushai, Mizel, Namte, Mag, Munda, Riang,

Uttarakhand: Bhotias, Buksa, Jannsari, Khas, Raji, Tharu.

Uttar Pradesh: Bhotia, Buksa, Jaunsari, Kol, Raji, Tharu, Gond, Kharwar, Saharya , Parahiya, Baiga, Agariya, Chero

West Bengal: Asur, Khond, Hajong, Ho, Parhaiya,  Rabha, Santhals, Savar, Bhumij, Bhutia, Chik Baraik, Kisan, Kora, Lodha, Kheria, Khariam, Mahali, Mal Pahariya, Oraon,

Andaman and Nicobar:  Oraons, Onges, Sentinelese, Shompens.

Reservation of seat for St in Lok Sabha:

• Madhya Pradesh: 6 seats
• Jharkhand: 5 seats
• Odisha: 5 seats
• Chhattisgarh: 4 seats
• Maharashtra: 4 Seats
• Gujarat: 4 seats
• Rajasthan: 3 seats
• Assam:  2 seats
• Meghalaya: 2 seats
• Arunachal Pradesh: 2 seats
• Telangana: 2 Seats
• West Bengal: 2 seats
• Karnataka: 2
• Sikkim: 1 seat
• Tripura: 1 seats
• Lakshadweep: 1
• Mizoram: 1
• Nagaland: 1 seat
• Andhra Pradesh: 1

The Dalit Panthers is a social organisation that seeks to combat caste discrimination. It was led by a group of Mahar writers and poets, including Raja Dhale, Namdeo Dhasal, and J. V. Pawar in some time between the second and the third semester of 1972.

Here is the chronological order of the Indian Constitutional Amendments mentioned:

1. C. Konkani added as a language in the 8th Schedule of the Indian Constitution
   • 71st Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992
     (This amendment added Konkani, Manipuri, and Nepali to the Eighth Schedule.)
2. A. Amendment in the Preamble and addition of 'unity and integrity of the nation'
   • 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976
     (This amendment added the words "unity and integrity of the nation" to the Preamble, along with "socialist" and "secular". It is often referred to as the "Mini-Constitution.")
3. B. Maithili added as a language in the 8th Schedule of the Indian Constitution
   • 92nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 2003
     (This amendment added Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, and Santhali to the Eighth Schedule.)
4. D. The Co-operative Societies inserted as Art.243 ZH
   • 97th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2011
     (This amendment gave constitutional status to cooperative societies by inserting Part IXB, Article 243ZH to 243ZT.)
5. E. Women Reservation Act
   The Constitution (106th Amendment) Act, 2023, reserves one-third of all seats for women in Lok Sabha, State legislative assemblies, and the Legislative Assembly of the National Capital Territory of Delhi, including those reserved for SCs and STs.

Final Order:

A → C → B → D → E (pending as of 2024)