Hedley Bull (1932–1985) was a giant in the field of International Relations (IR) and a primary figure in the "English School" of thought. He is best known for his 1977 masterpiece, The Anarchical Society, which argues that the world isn't just a chaotic "system" of states, but a society of states that shares certain norms and rules even without a central government.

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Martin Wight was a key thinker of the English School in International Relations.

His major works include Power Politics (1946), Systems of States (1977), and International Theory: The Three Traditions (1991, posthumous).

Wight’s central argument is that international politics can be understood through three traditions: Realism (Machiavellian), which emphasizes power and conflict; Rationalism (Grotian), which stresses international society, law, and diplomacy; and Revolutionism (Kantian), which focuses on moral unity and global community. He argued that states do not exist in pure anarchy but form an “international society” governed by shared norms and institutions. Wight highlighted the importance of history, diplomacy, and ethical considerations, rejecting purely scientific approaches. His work bridges realism and idealism, showing that international relations involve a complex interaction of power, rules, and moral purpose.

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Joseph Nye (1937–2025) was a towering figure in International Relations (IR), best known for cofounding neoliberalism and pioneering the concept of "Soft Power." A professor at Harvard and a former high-ranking official in the State and Defense Departments, Nye's work focused on how states can achieve their goals through cooperation and attraction rather than just military force.

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He was a well-known American scholar in International Relations (IR). His work mainly focused on how global politics is shaped not just by states, but also by non-state actors and complex interactions.

Key ideas:

• Turbulence in world politics → He argued that global politics is increasingly unstable and complex.
• Post-international politics → Politics is no longer controlled only by nation-states; individuals, NGOs, and multinational corporations also matter.
• Fragmegration (fragmentation + integration) → The world is simultaneously becoming more connected and more divided.

Important works:

• The Study of World Politics (2006–2007) (2 volumes)
• Turbulence in World Politics (1990)
• Along the Domestic–Foreign Frontier — (1997)

December 28, 1981, Forty Years Ago: No war pact

India has made it clear to Pakistan that a no-war pact between them could be in continuation and recognition of all elements of the Simla Agreement.

Source: https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/editorials/india-pakistan-no-war-pact-forty-years-ago-7693680/

Main Features of Classical Realism, Neo-Realism, Neo-Classical Realism and Subaltern Realism

Realism (Classical)

• Statism: States are the primary, rational, and unitary actors in global politics.
• Anarchy: Absence of a central world government; international politics is a self-help system.
• Survival: The highest national interest and primary goal of every state.
• Self-Help: States must rely on their own resources for security; international cooperation is limited.
• Human Nature: Conflict arises from the inherently flawed and selfish nature of humanity.
• Power: Military and economic strength are the ultimate currency for influence and security.

Main thinkers

• Thucydides: Ancient Greek historian; his History of the Peloponnesian War established the foundational logic that "the strong do what they can and the weak suffer what they must."
• Niccolò Machiavelli: Emphasized raison d'état (reason of state) and the necessity for leaders to prioritize state survival over conventional morality in The Prince.
• Thomas Hobbes: Argued in Leviathan that without a sovereign power, life is a "war of all against all," creating an analogy for the anarchic international system.
• Hans Morgenthau: The central figure of 20th-century classical realism; his Politics Among Nations popularized the idea of power politics and the struggle for domination.
• H. Carr: Critiqued utopian idealism in The Twenty Years' Crisis, arguing that international politics is fundamentally a clash of interests.

Neo-Realism (Structural Realism)

• Systemic/Structural Focus: Behaviour is dictated by the structure of the international system, not human nature.
• Anarchy as a Constraint: The defining feature of the international structure that forces states to pursue security.
• Distribution of Capabilities (Polarity): The relative power (unipolar, bipolar, multipolar) of states determines system stability.
• Relative Gains: States are intensely concerned with their power position relative to rivals, hindering long-term cooperation.
• Security Dilemma: Actions taken by one state to increase its security are perceived as threats by others, leading to arms races.
• Unitary Function: States are "like units" that behave similarly (balancing) to survive in the anarchic structure.

Main Thinkers

• Kenneth Waltz: The father of structural realism; his Theory of International Politics argued that the system's structure—not human nature—forces states to balance power.
• John Mearsheimer: The leading proponent of "Offensive Realism," arguing in The Tragedy of Great Power Politics that states maximize power to ensure survival.
• Robert Gilpin: Known for his work on hegemonic stability theory, focusing on how power shifts and systemic change occur over time.
• Stephen Walt: Known for "Defensive Realism" and his work on "Balance of Threat" theory, which refines how states form alliances.

Neo-Classical Realism

• Systemic + Unit Level: Integrates Waltz’s systemic constraints (anarchy) with unit-level domestic variables.
• Transmission Belt: Domestic factors (state capacity, elite perception, political cohesion) act as a "filter" that mediates how systemic pressures translate into foreign policy.
• Potential vs. Actual Power: Systemic structure defines a state's potential power, but domestic variables determine its actual power and strategic implementation.
• Strategic Autonomy: Emphasizes that leaders have space to interpret external threats based on their internal political environment.
• Bridging Theory: Reconciles Classical Realism (human nature/domestic politics) with Neo-Realism (structure).

Main Thinkers

• Fareed Zakaria: A major voice in this branch; his work, particularly From Wealth to Power, argues that a state's ability to exert influence abroad is limited by its institutional capacity to extract resources from its own society. He emphasizes that even a powerful state might not act on its potential if it lacks the state capacity to mobilize that power.
• Gideon Rose: Coined the term "Neoclassical Realism" and identified the analytical need to incorporate domestic variables into the study of foreign policy.
• Randall Schweller: Focuses on state intentions and the vital distinction between "status quo" states and "revisionist" states that seek to change the system.
• William Wohlforth: Analyzes how power transitions and domestic state capacity affect the actual implementation of grand strategy.
• Thomas Christensen: Explores the relationship between domestic political constraints and the state's external strategic behavior.

Subaltern Realism

• Global South Focus: Critiques mainstream Realism for being overly Eurocentric and ignoring the security dilemmas of post-colonial states.
• Regime Security: The primary goal is often the survival of the regime or the government, rather than just the territorial security of the state.
• Internal Threat Dominance: Security threats are frequently internal (ethnic conflict, secessionism, lack of national integration) rather than external interstate threats.
• Weak State Capacity: Institutional fragility and lack of state-society consensus make states vulnerable to domestic fragmentation.
• Colonial Legacy: Acknowledges that historical colonial borders and societal divisions contribute significantly to current insecurity and instability.

Main Thinkers

• Mohammed Ayoob: The pioneer of subaltern realism; his work emphasizes the "Third World" security dilemma, where internal threats are often more pressing than external ones.
• Amitav Acharya: Contributes significantly to understanding regional security complexes and the "Global South" perspective on international orders.
• Brian Job: Explores the concept of "insecurity" in the post-colonial world, focusing on the lack of state-society consensus.