Robert Merton’s concept of the "Political Machine" is associated with a system of political organization in large cities characterized by strong, centralized leadership and patronage-based governance. Political machines, as described by Merton and other sociologists, rely on a network of relationships between politicians and constituents, where votes and political loyalty are exchanged for jobs, services, and favors.

Merton highlighted that political machines often serve as a mechanism for social integration and upward mobility, particularly for immigrants and lower-income groups in urban areas. In this context, the political machine offers stability, social services, and opportunities for those who are marginalized by other formal institutions.

Essentially, Merton’s work explores how these political machines operate beyond mere corruption, showing their function in maintaining social order and providing services in complex, bureaucratic urban environments.

Structural functional analysis was first used in biological and mechanical sciences.

Anthropoligists were the first to use it in social sciences. They were followed by such eminent sociologists as Talcott Parsons and Levy, who used it in sociology.

It received attention in 1922 when Malnowski and Red Cliffe Brown brought out two essays on functionalism.

William C. Michel, Almond and Powell used it directly in their studies.

Almond gave five different input function in his Structural-Functional Approach - 

(i) Political Socialization

(ii) Political Recruitment

(iii) Interest Articulation

(iv) Interest Aggregation

(v) Political Communication

Almond gave three different output function in his Structural-Functional Approach -

(i) Rule-making

(ii) Rule-application

(iii) Rule-adjudication

Almond and Coleman applied it first in 1960 to the study of non-western politics. The title of the work containing such a formulation is The Politics of the Developing Areas.

Six years later, G. Almond and G. B. Powell published their work, Comparative Politics: A Developmental Approach (1966).

In the second book Almond modified his approach after facing some criticism.

Structural-Functionalism is primarily a framework of investigation in sociology and political science. It is a theoretical approach that analyzes society and political systems by examining their structures (institutions, roles, norms) and the functions these structures perform to maintain stability and order within a system. This framework seeks to understand how different parts of a system (like political institutions, norms, and practices) work together to fulfill essential needs or functions.

In essence, structural-functionalism focuses on:

• Structures: The organized parts or components of a society or political system (e.g., institutions, roles, organizations).
• Functions: The contributions each structure makes to the stability, continuity, or equilibrium of the overall system (e.g., political socialization, interest articulation, policy implementation).

By examining these elements, structural-functionalism aims to explain how societies and political systems operate, maintain stability, and adapt to external or internal changes. Thus, it serves as a framework of investigation for understanding the complex interactions and dependencies within social and political systems.

Here are the key books associated with the theorists who applied the structural-functional approach to the study of comparative politics:

1. Gabriel Almond
   • "The Politics of the Developing Areas" (1960): Co-edited with James S. Coleman, this book applies the structural-functional framework to analyze political development in non-Western societies.
   • "Comparative Politics: A Developmental Approach" (1966): Co-authored with G. Bingham Powell, this book lays out a framework for understanding political systems through functions such as political socialization, recruitment, and communication.
   • "The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations" (1963): Co-authored with Sidney Verba, this seminal work examines the relationship between political culture and democracy using the structural-functional approach.
2. Sidney Verba
   • "The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations" (1963): Co-authored with Gabriel Almond, this classic book examines political attitudes and their functional significance in democratic stability.
   • "The Civic Culture Revisited" (1980): Edited with Gabriel Almond, this book revisits and expands upon their earlier work, discussing new developments in political culture.
3. David Easton
   • "The Political System: An Inquiry into the State of Political Science" (1953): This foundational work introduces Easton’s systems theory and discusses the functions of political systems in maintaining stability.
   • "A Framework for Political Analysis" (1965): In this book, Easton further develops his systems approach, focusing on inputs (demands and supports) and outputs in political systems.
4. Talcott Parsons
   • "The Social System" (1951): Although not directly on comparative politics, this book introduces Parsons’ functionalist theory, which influenced political scientists like Almond and others.
   • "Structure and Process in Modern Societies" (1960): This book elaborates on Parsons’ theories of social structure and their functional significance.
5. Lucian Pye
   • "Aspects of Political Development" (1966): In this book, Pye applies a structural-functional perspective to examine how various aspects of political systems contribute to development.
   • "The Politics of Modernization" (1965): Pye discusses the structural and functional challenges that traditional societies face during the process of modernization.

These books reflect the structural-functional approach’s emphasis on understanding how political systems function, maintain stability, and adapt to change.

Here are the key books associated with the theorists who applied the structural-functional approach to the study of comparative politics:

1. Gabriel Almond
   • "The Politics of the Developing Areas" (1960): Co-edited with James S. Coleman, this book applies the structural-functional framework to analyze political development in non-Western societies.
   • "Comparative Politics: A Developmental Approach" (1966): Co-authored with G. Bingham Powell, this book lays out a framework for understanding political systems through functions such as political socialization, recruitment, and communication.
   • "The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations" (1963): Co-authored with Sidney Verba, this seminal work examines the relationship between political culture and democracy using the structural-functional approach.
2. Sidney Verba
   • "The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations" (1963): Co-authored with Gabriel Almond, this classic book examines political attitudes and their functional significance in democratic stability.
   • "The Civic Culture Revisited" (1980): Edited with Gabriel Almond, this book revisits and expands upon their earlier work, discussing new developments in political culture.
3. David Easton
   • "The Political System: An Inquiry into the State of Political Science" (1953): This foundational work introduces Easton’s systems theory and discusses the functions of political systems in maintaining stability.
   • "A Framework for Political Analysis" (1965): In this book, Easton further develops his systems approach, focusing on inputs (demands and supports) and outputs in political systems.
4. Talcott Parsons
   • "The Social System" (1951): Although not directly on comparative politics, this book introduces Parsons’ functionalist theory, which influenced political scientists like Almond and others.
   • "Structure and Process in Modern Societies" (1960): This book elaborates on Parsons’ theories of social structure and their functional significance.
5. Lucian Pye
   • "Aspects of Political Development" (1966): In this book, Pye applies a structural-functional perspective to examine how various aspects of political systems contribute to development.
   • "The Politics of Modernization" (1965): Pye discusses the structural and functional challenges that traditional societies face during the process of modernization.

These books reflect the structural-functional approach’s emphasis on understanding how political systems function, maintain stability, and adapt to change.

Almond gave five different input function in his Structural-Functional Approach - 

(i) Political Socialization

(ii) Political Recruitment

(iii) Interest Articulation

(iv) Interest Aggregation

(v) Political Communication

Almond gave three different output function in his Structural-Functional Approach -

(i) Rule-making

(ii) Rule-application

(iii) Rule-adjudication

The structural-functionalism focuses on:

• Structures: The organized parts or components of a society or political system (e.g., institutions, roles, organizations).
• Functions: The contributions each structure makes to the stability, continuity, or equilibrium of the overall system (e.g., political socialization, interest articulation, policy implementation).

Here are the key books associated with the theorists who applied the structural-functional approach to the study of comparative politics:

1. Gabriel Almond
   • "The Politics of the Developing Areas" (1960): Co-edited with James S. Coleman, this book applies the structural-functional framework to analyze political development in non-Western societies.
   • "Comparative Politics: A Developmental Approach" (1966): Co-authored with G. Bingham Powell, this book lays out a framework for understanding political systems through functions such as political socialization, recruitment, and communication.
   • "The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations" (1963): Co-authored with Sidney Verba, this seminal work examines the relationship between political culture and democracy using the structural-functional approach.
2. Sidney Verba
   • "The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations" (1963): Co-authored with Gabriel Almond, this classic book examines political attitudes and their functional significance in democratic stability.
   • "The Civic Culture Revisited" (1980): Edited with Gabriel Almond, this book revisits and expands upon their earlier work, discussing new developments in political culture.
3. David Easton
   • "The Political System: An Inquiry into the State of Political Science" (1953): This foundational work introduces Easton’s systems theory and discusses the functions of political systems in maintaining stability.
   • "A Framework for Political Analysis" (1965): In this book, Easton further develops his systems approach, focusing on inputs (demands and supports) and outputs in political systems.
4. Talcott Parsons
   • "The Social System" (1951): Although not directly on comparative politics, this book introduces Parsons’ functionalist theory, which influenced political scientists like Almond and others.
   • "Structure and Process in Modern Societies" (1960): This book elaborates on Parsons’ theories of social structure and their functional significance.
5. Lucian Pye
   • "Aspects of Political Development" (1966): In this book, Pye applies a structural-functional perspective to examine how various aspects of political systems contribute to development.
   • "The Politics of Modernization" (1965): Pye discusses the structural and functional challenges that traditional societies face during the process of modernization.

These books reflect the structural-functional approach’s emphasis on understanding how political systems function, maintain stability, and adapt to change.

Structural-Functionalism is primarily a framework of investigation in sociology and political science. It is a theoretical approach that analyzes society and political systems by examining their structures (institutions, roles, norms) and the functions these structures perform to maintain stability and order within a system. This framework seeks to understand how different parts of a system (like political institutions, norms, and practices) work together to fulfill essential needs or functions.

In essence, structural-functionalism focuses on:

• Structures: The organized parts or components of a society or political system (e.g., institutions, roles, organizations).
• Functions: The contributions each structure makes to the stability, continuity, or equilibrium of the overall system (e.g., political socialization, interest articulation, policy implementation).

By examining these elements, structural-functionalism aims to explain how societies and political systems operate, maintain stability, and adapt to external or internal changes. Thus, it serves as a framework of investigation for understanding the complex interactions and dependencies within social and political systems.

Structural functional analysis was first used in biological and mechanical sciences.

Anthropoligists were the first to use it in social sciences. They were followed by such eminent sociologists as Talcott Parsons and Levy, who used it in sociology.

It received attention in 1922 when Malnowski and Red Cliffe Brown brought out two essays on functionalism.

William C. Michel, Almond and Powell used it directly in their studies.

__________________

Auguste Comte (1798–1857) is best known as the father of sociology and the proponent of positivism, a philosophical system that emphasizes the use of scientific methods to study social phenomena. Comte's ideology revolves around the idea that society evolves through three distinct stages: the theological, metaphysical, and scientific (or positive) stages. He believed that society could be understood and improved through the application of scientific principles.

Almond gave five different input function in his Structural-Functional Approach - 

(i) Political Socialization

(ii) Political Recruitment

(iii) Interest Articulation

(iv) Interest Aggregation

(v) Political Communication

Almond gave three different output function in his Structural-Functional Approach -

(i) Rule-making

(ii) Rule-application

(iii) Rule-adjudication

• Comparative Politics Today (2013) is Written by  Kaare Strøm, Russell J. Dalton, Gabriel Almond, G. Powell.

The Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam is a social service organization that has been representing the Ezhava community from the Indian state of Kerala since 1903. The S.N.D.P Yogam was founded by Dr. Padmanabhan Palpu and other Ezhava leaders with the blessing of Narayana Guru.

______________

The National Service Scheme is an Indian government sector public service program conducted by the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports of the Government of India. Popularly known as NSS, the scheme was launched in Mahatma Gandhi's centenary year in 1969.

_____________

The Revolutionary Socialist Party (RSP) is a communist party in India. The party was founded on 19 March 1940 by Tridib Chaudhuri and has its roots in the Bengali liberation movement Anushilan Samiti and the Hindustan Socialist Republican Army

The famous four-fold functional analysis of social systems is indeed attributed to Talcott Parsons, a prominent sociologist known for his contributions to structural-functionalism. Parsons developed a framework that focuses on how different elements of a social system contribute to its overall stability and functioning.

Key Components of Parsons' Four-Fold Functional Analysis:

1. Adaptation:
   • This function pertains to how a social system adjusts to its environment. It includes the economic aspects of society, where systems must adapt to material resources and ensure the survival of individuals and groups.
2. Goal Attainment:
   • This function involves setting and achieving goals within the social system. It refers to the political and decision-making processes that allow a society to determine its objectives and mobilize resources to achieve them.
3. Integration:
   • Integration refers to the mechanisms that maintain order and cohesion within a society. This function addresses how various parts of the social system are coordinated and unified, including social norms, values, and institutions that promote solidarity.
4. Latency (Pattern Maintenance):
   • This function deals with the maintenance of societal norms and values over time. It encompasses the cultural aspects of a social system, ensuring that the patterns of behavior and beliefs necessary for the system's stability are preserved and transmitted across generations.

Almond gave five different input function in his Structural-Functional Approach - 

(i) Political Socialization

(ii) Political Recruitment

(iii) Interest Articulation

(iv) Interest Aggregation

(v) Political Communication

Almond gave three different output function in his Structural-Functional Approach -

(i) Rule-making

(ii) Rule-application

(iii) Rule-adjudication

Almond gave five different input function in his Structural-Functional Approach - 

(i) Political Socialization

(ii) Political Recruitment

(iii) Interest Articulation

(iv) Interest Aggregation

(v) Political Communication

Almond gave three different output function in his Structural-Functional Approach -

(i) Rule-making

(ii) Rule-application

(iii) Rule-adjudication

Key Works by Gabriel Almond:

1. "The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations" (1963):
   • Co-authored with Sidney Verba, this seminal work examines the relationship between political culture and democracy. It analyzes how different civic cultures influence democratic stability and the functioning of political systems in the U.S., U.K., Germany, Italy, and Mexico.
2. "Comparative Politics: A Developmental Approach" (1966):
   • Co-authored with G. Bingham Powell, this book applies the structural-functional approach to the study of political systems, highlighting how different structures perform essential functions in various political contexts.
3. "The Politics of the Developing Areas" (1960):
   • Co-edited with James S. Coleman, this work focuses on the political dynamics of developing countries and explores how structural factors influence political behavior and development.
4. "A Discipline Divided: Schools and Sects in Political Science" (1990):
   • In this book, Almond discusses the fragmentation within political science, reflecting on the various schools of thought, including the structural-functional approach and its implications for the discipline.

Key Works by Gabriel Almond:

1. "The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations" (1963):
   • Co-authored with Sidney Verba, this seminal work examines the relationship between political culture and democracy. It analyzes how different civic cultures influence democratic stability and the functioning of political systems in the U.S., U.K., Germany, Italy, and Mexico.
2. "Comparative Politics: A Developmental Approach" (1966):
   • Co-authored with G. Bingham Powell, this book applies the structural-functional approach to the study of political systems, highlighting how different structures perform essential functions in various political contexts.
3. "The Politics of the Developing Areas" (1960):
   • Co-edited with James S. Coleman, this work focuses on the political dynamics of developing countries and explores how structural factors influence political behavior and development.
4. "A Discipline Divided: Schools and Sects in Political Science" (1990):
   • In this book, Almond discusses the fragmentation within political science, reflecting on the various schools of thought, including the structural-functional approach and its implications for the discipline.

I. ‘The Politics of Developing Area' (1960) by Gabriel Almond

II. ‘Modern Politics of Government’ (1971) by Alan R. ball

III. 'The Political Process’ (1953) by David Easton

IV. ‘Aspect of Political Development’ (1966) by Lucian Pye

The correct chronological order of publication for the following books is:

1. Theory and Practice of Modern Governments by Herman Finer (1932): This book is a classic in public administration, exploring the structure and function of governments.
2. The Power Elite by C. Wright Mills (1956): This book examines the power structure of the United States, focusing on the military, corporate, and political elites.
3. Political Man by Seymour Martin Lipset (1960): This influential work explores the social bases of politics, particularly the relationship between democracy and social conditions.
4. Comparative Politics: A Developmental Approach by Gabriel Almond and G. Bingham Powell (1966): This book contributed significantly to the field of comparative politics, with a focus on political development and systems analysis.

Thus, the correct chronological order is:

(iii) Theory and Practice of Modern Governments → (ii) The Power Elite → (i) Political Man → (iv) Comparative Politics: A Developmental Approach.

1. Structural-functionalism (1940s-1950s): This approach, which examines how structures within a political system function to maintain stability, emerged in the mid-20th century. Scholars like Talcott Parsons and Gabriel Almond were influential in its development.
2. Post-behaviourism (late 1960s): This approach arose as a reaction to Behaviouralism, advocating for the inclusion of normative and value-based concerns in political analysis. It was championed by David Easton, who emphasized the importance of relevance and action-oriented research.
3. Neo-liberalism (1970s-1980s): This political and economic ideology, associated with thinkers like Friedrich Hayek and Milton Friedman, gained prominence in the 1970s and 1980s, advocating for free-market policies, deregulation, and limited government intervention.
4. Communitarianism (1980s-1990s): Emerging as a critique of liberal individualism, Communitarianism focuses on the importance of community and social responsibilities. Scholars like Amitai Etzioni and Charles Taylor contributed to its development during the late 20th century.