Rani Gaidinliu’s Naga Movement

• Location: In the Zeliangrong territory in Manipur (the 1930s)
• - Leadership: 
  • It was a socio-religious movement (also known as Heraka movement) initiated under the leadership of Gaidinliu’s cousin, Haipou Jadonang.
  • After Jadonang was hanged, Gaidinliu emerged as the political and spiritual leader of the movement.
  • Rani Gaidinliu was born on 26 January 1915 in Luangkao village (now in the Tamenglong District of Manipur) and belonged to the Rongmei tribe
  • Gaidinliu’s introduction to the movement was at the age of 13 when she joined the Heraka Movement.
  • In 1937 Jawaharlal Nehru visited Gaidinliu. He conferred upon her the title “Rani” for her courage.
  • An article published by the Hindustan Times described her as the “Daughter of the Hills”. 
  • Although Nehru tried to persuade for her early release, it bore no result. She was released only after India gained independence in 1947.

  - Reasons:

  • This Tribal movement championed the cause of the Naga’s self-rule.
  • Jadonang, the clan’s spiritual leader, preached against the British missionaries, which aimed to convert the Naga tribes to Christianity.

  - Developments: 

  • Gaidinliu started preaching Gandhian principles at the age of 17 and launched an open rebellion against British rule.
  • They refused to pay taxes or cooperate with the British and stood together in the face of the repressive measures imposed by the police and the Assam Rifles.

  - British response: 

  • Although it had reformist religious objectives, there were also political undertones against British rule, which made the British wary of the movement and its leader.
  • This tribal movement received a significant setback with the arrest and hanging of Jadonang after a mock trial in 1931.

  Gaidinliu was finally captured on 17 October 1932 and sentenced to life imprisonment.

• She established a tribal organization named Kabni Samiti in 1934.
• Awards
  Tamrapatra Freedom Fighter Award-1972
  Padma Bhushan-1982
  Vivekananda Seva Award-1983
  Birsa Munda Award-posthumously

• Birsa Munda is also known as Dharti Aaba (Father of Earth).
• Birsa Munda was a tribal leader and freedom fighter who led the Munda Ulgulan (rebellion) against the British Raj in the late 19th century. The rebellion was a response to the British government's unfair land grabbing practices and attempts to seize tribal lands.

The only tribal leader whose portrait is installed in the Parliament of India’s Museum is Birsa Munda. He was a prominent freedom fighter and tribal leader from the Munda tribe in the late 19th century. Birsa Munda led a tribal religious movement, which posed a significant challenge to British colonial rule in the Chota Nagpur Plateau region (present-day Jharkhand and surrounding areas). His contributions to India's struggle for independence and his efforts to uplift the tribal community have been recognized by honoring him in the Parliament's Museum.

The Shahada Movement is associated with the Bhil tribal community. This movement took place in the Shahada region of Maharashtra in the early 20th century and was aimed at fighting against the exploitation of Bhil tribals by landlords and moneylenders.

• Some seats are reserved in Lok Sabha for the members of the Schedule Castes and Scheduled Tribes. As per the order issued by the Delimitation Commission in 2008 , 412 are general, 84 seats are reserved for Scheduled Castes and 47 seats for the Scheduled Tribes .
• Article 330 grants for reservation of SC and ST the in Lok Sabha.
• Article 332 grants for reservation of SC and ST the in Legislative Assembly.
• According to the Indian Constitution, the Central Government provides special grants for the welfare of the Scheduled Tribe (ST) community through Article 275(1), which guarantees grants-in-aid from the Consolidated Fund of India for promoting the welfare of Scheduled Tribes.
• According to the Indian Constitution, reservation of seats in public services and employment for the Scheduled Tribe (ST) community is primarily governed by Article 16(4) and Article 335; where Article 16 deals with equality of opportunity in public employment, and Article 335 specifically states that the claims of SCs and STs should be considered when making appointments, while maintaining administrative efficiency.
• According to the Indian Constitution, reservation of seats in educational institutions for the Scheduled Tribe (ST) community is primarily covered under Article 15(4), which allows the state to make special provisions for the advancement of socially and educationally backward classes, including Scheduled Tribes, thereby enabling reservation in educational institutions and jobs.

The Dilip Singh Bhuria Committee was formed in 1994 to address the issues related to the governance and rights of tribal communities in India. The committee's primary focus was to recommend steps for the implementation of the Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 (PESA). This act aimed to extend the provisions of the Indian Panchayati Raj system to the tribal areas listed under the Fifth Schedule of the Indian Constitution.

The committee, chaired by Dilip Singh Bhuria, a prominent tribal leader and politician, made significant recommendations to empower tribal communities by ensuring self-governance and decision-making powers in their areas. The PESA Act was a landmark legislation that sought to protect the rights of indigenous communities over their land, resources, and governance by granting them more autonomy.

Key recommendations of the Bhuria Committee included:

• Empowerment of local tribal councils and Gram Sabhas.
• Protection of tribal customs, traditional resources, and rights.
• Enhanced participation of tribal people in decision-making processes regarding their land and resources.

The PESA Act was enacted as a result of this committee's work, aiming to provide a legal framework for self-rule in tribal areas.
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The P.K. Thungan Committee was established in 1989 to recommend measures for the effective implementation of the Panchayati Raj system in India, particularly with respect to the autonomy and empowerment of local self-governments. The committee, chaired by P.K. Thungan, emphasized the need to decentralize power to the grassroots level and enhance the participation of local bodies in governance. It recommended financial and administrative empowerment of Panchayats, regular elections, and greater involvement of people in rural governance. These recommendations significantly influenced the 73rd Constitutional Amendment in 1992, which formalized the Panchayati Raj system across India.
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The Sadiq Ali Committee was formed in 1964 to address issues related to the functioning and development of Panchayati Raj institutions in India. Chaired by Sadiq Ali, the committee aimed to assess the effectiveness of these local self-governance bodies and recommend measures to strengthen them.

It was constituted in review the function of panchayat in Rajasthan.

The National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST) was formed as a result of the 89th Constitutional Amendment Act of 2003, which led to the bifurcation of the National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes into two separate bodies: one for Scheduled Castes (SCs) and another for Scheduled Tribes (STs).

Prior to this, the welfare of both SCs and STs was handled by a joint commission, the National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, which had been established under Article 338 of the Indian Constitution.

In 2004, the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes was constituted under Article 338A, giving it the responsibility to safeguard and monitor the interests of STs. The commission is tasked with investigating issues related to the rights and welfare of STs, advising on policies for their development, and inquiring into violations of their rights. It plays a key role in ensuring constitutional safeguards and addressing grievances.
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The National Commission for Human Rights (NCHR), formally known as the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) of India, was established on October 12, 1993, under the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993. The need for a human rights body arose in the early 1990s due to rising concerns over human rights violations, both globally and within India, in areas such as custodial violence, discrimination, and abuse of power.

The NHRC was created to investigate human rights abuses, including the right to life, liberty, equality, and dignity, as guaranteed by the Constitution or international covenants. The commission has the power to investigate complaints, intervene in court cases involving human rights issues, and make recommendations to the government.

The NHRC comprises a chairperson, usually a retired Chief Justice of India, along with other members from judicial, human rights, and related fields, who are tasked with protecting and promoting human rights across the country.
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The National Commission for Minorities (NCM) was established in 1993 by the National Commission for Minorities Act, 1992, to safeguard and promote the rights of India's religious minorities. Initially, the government of India identified six religious communities—Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Parsis, and Jains (added in 2014)—as minorities under the National Commission for Minorities Act.

The NCM was formed to address issues faced by these communities, ensure their constitutional rights, and promote their welfare. The commission is tasked with monitoring the implementation of safeguards provided for minorities in the Constitution and laws, examining complaints of discrimination, and making recommendations for policy changes to the government.

The NCM consists of a chairperson and members appointed by the government, representing various minority communities, and plays a key role in fostering communal harmony and addressing grievances of minority communities across India.
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The National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC) was established under Article 338 of the Indian Constitution to safeguard and promote the interests of Scheduled Castes (SCs). The Commission was first constituted in 1950, with its primary purpose being to investigate and monitor the implementation of safeguards provided for SCs and to address grievances related to their rights and welfare.

Key functions of the NCSC include:

• Investigating complaints and taking suo motu notice of matters related to the rights of SCs.
• Reviewing and recommending measures for the improvement of the social and economic conditions of SCs.
• Monitoring the implementation of various laws and schemes intended for the upliftment of SCs.

The Commission is composed of a chairperson and members appointed by the President of India. Its role is crucial in ensuring that the rights of SCs are protected and that they receive fair treatment and equal opportunities.

Major Tribes in India: Arranged State-wise

Andhra Pradesh:  Andh, Sadhu Andh, Bhagata, Bhil, Chenchus (Chenchawar), Gadabas, Gond, Goundu, Jatapus, Kammara, Kattunayakan, Kolawar, Kolam, Konda, Manna Dhora, Pardhan, Rona, Savaras, Dabba Yerukula, Nakkala, Dhulia, Thoti, Sugalis, Banjara, Kondareddis, Koya, Mukha Dhora, Valmiki , Yenadis, Sugalis, Lambadis.

Arunachal Pradesh: Apatanis, Abor, Dafla, Galong, Momba, Sherdukpen, Singpho, Nyishi, Mishmi, Idu, Taroan, Tagin, Adi, Monpa, Wancho

Assam: Chakma, Chutiya, Dimasa, Hajong, Garos, Khasis, Gangte, Karbi, Boro, Borokachari, Kachari, Sonwal, Miri, Rabha, Garo

Bihar: Asur, Baiga, Birhor, Birjia, Chero, Gond, Parhaiya, Santhals, Savar, Kharwar, Banjara, Oraon, Santal, Tharu

Chhattisgarh: Agariya, Bhaina, Bhattra, Biar, Khond, Mawasi, Nagasia, Gond, Binjhwar, Halba, Halbi, Kawar, Sawar,

Goa: Dhodia, Dubia, Naikda, Siddi,Varli, Gawda.

Gujarat: Barda, Bamcha, Bhil, Charan, Dhodia, Gamta, Paradhi, Patelia, Dhanka, Dubla, Talavia, Halpati, Kokna, Naikda, Patelia, Rathawa, Siddi.

Himachal Pradesh: Gaddis, Gujjars, Khas, Lamba, Lahaulas, Pangwala, Swangla, Beta, Beda Bhot, Bodh.

Jammu and Kashmir: Bakarwal, Balti, Beda, Gaddi, Garra, Mon, Purigpa, Sippi, Changpa, Gujjar.

Jharkhand:  Birhors, Bhumij, Gonds, Kharia, Mundas, Santhals, Savar, Bedia, Ho, Kharwar, Lohra, Mahli, Parhaiya, Santal, Kol, Banjara.

Karnataka: Adiyan, Barda, Gond, Bhil, Iruliga, Koraga, Patelia, Yerava, Hasalaru, Koli Dhor, Marati , Meda, Naikda, Soligaru.

Kerala: Adiyan, Arandan, Eravallan, Kurumbas, Malai arayan, Moplahs, Uralis, Irular, Kanikaran, Kattunayakan, Kurichchan, Muthuvan.

Madhya Pradesh: Baigas,  Bhils, Bharia, Birhors, Gonds, Katkari, kharia, Khond, Kol, Murias, Korku, Mawasi, Pardhan, Sahariya,

Maharashtra:  Bhaina, Bhunjia, Dhodia, Katkari, Khond, Rathawa, Warlis, Dhanka, Halba, Kathodi, Kokna, Koli Mahadev, Pardhi, Thakur,

Manipur: Naga, Kuki, Meitei, Aimol, Angami, Chiru, Maram, Monsang, Paite, Purum, Thadou, Anal, Mao, Tangkhul, Thadou, Poumai Naga.

Meghalaya: Chakma, Garos, Hajong, Jaintias Khasis, Lakher, Pawai, Raba, Mikir.

Mizoram: Chakma, Dimasa, Khasi, Kuki, Lakher, Pawi, Raba, Synteng, Lushai

Nagaland:  Angami, Garo, Kachari, Kuki, Mikir, Nagas, Sema, Ao, Chakhesang, Konyak, Lotha, Phom, Rengma, Sangtam,

Odisha:  Gadaba, Ghara, Kharia, Khond, Matya, Oraons, Rajuar, Santhals, Bathudi, Bathuri, Bhottada, Bhumij, Gond, Juang, Kisan, Kolha, Kora, Khayara, Koya, Munda, Paroja, Saora, Shabar, Lodha.

Rajasthan: Bhils, Damaria, Dhanka, Meenas(Minas), Patelia, Sahariya, Naikda, Nayaka, Kathodi.

Sikkim:  Bhutia, Khas, Lepchas, Limboo, Tamang

Tamil Nadu: Adiyan, Aranadan, Eravallan, Irular, Kadar, Kanikar, Kotas, Todas, Kurumans, Malayali,

Telangana: Chenchus.

Tripura: Bhil, Bhutia, Chaimal, Chakma, Halam, Khasia, Lushai, Mizel, Namte, Mag, Munda, Riang,

Uttarakhand: Bhotias, Buksa, Jannsari, Khas, Raji, Tharu.

Uttar Pradesh: Bhotia, Buksa, Jaunsari, Kol, Raji, Tharu, Gond, Kharwar, Saharya , Parahiya, Baiga, Agariya, Chero

West Bengal: Asur, Khond, Hajong, Ho, Parhaiya,  Rabha, Santhals, Savar, Bhumij, Bhutia, Chik Baraik, Kisan, Kora, Lodha, Kheria, Khariam, Mahali, Mal Pahariya, Oraon,

Andaman and Nicobar:  Oraons, Onges, Sentinelese, Shompens.

Article 315 of the Indian Constitution establishes the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) and the State Public Service Commissions. The article also provides guidelines for the composition, appointment, removal, duties, and functions of these commissions.
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Political anthropology is a subfield of social and cultural anthropology that studies politics in a comparative way, across a range of historical, social, and cultural settings. Political anthropologists examine how politics are contextualized and how localities are incorporated into larger scales of social, economic, and political life.

Political anthropologists study a variety of topics, including:

• Political authority: The historical formation of sovereignty, state authority, and the modern government of bodies and populations
• Social inequality: How power is used to limit the behavioral alternatives of others
• Institutional dynamics: How power relationships are dialectically related to symbolic action
• Political transformation: How politics are affected by the everyday and ritual construction of collective memory
• Collective identity: The politics of class, gender, race, sexual orientation, ethnicity, and nationalism

Tana Bhagat movement:

- Location: 

• Tana Bhagat movement (1914-1920) is a movement that emerged among the Oraon tribes of Chotanagpur, Jharkhand.

- Leadership:

• The leader of the Tana Bhagat movement was called Jatra Bhagat

- Reasons: 

• The economic and cultural exploitation of the Oraon tribes.
• For them, Swaraj meant freedom from British rule and freedom from the oppression of the ‘Dikkus’, money-lenders, zamindars and feudal overlords.
• Also, the leaders of this movement wanted to stop the evil practices among the tribes, like the worship of ghosts and spirits and the practice of exorcism.

- Nature: 

• There was an active rebellion against unfair landlords who exploited them.
• Some of the members refused to pay rent to their landlords and ceased to cultivate their lands.

- Significance: 

The movement was influenced by Mahatma Gandhi and his idea of non-violence.

Reservation of seat for St in Lok Sabha:

• Madhya Pradesh: 6 seats
• Jharkhand: 5 seats
• Odisha: 5 seats
• Chhattisgarh: 4 seats
• Maharashtra: 4 Seats
• Gujarat: 4 seats
• Rajasthan: 3 seats
• Assam:  2 seats
• Meghalaya: 2 seats
• Arunachal Pradesh: 2 seats
• Telangana: 2 Seats
• West Bengal: 2 seats
• Karnataka: 2
• Sikkim: 1 seat
• Tripura: 1 seats
• Lakshadweep: 1
• Mizoram: 1
• Nagaland: 1 seat
• Andhra Pradesh: 1

The National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST) was formed as a result of the 89th Constitutional Amendment Act of 2003, which led to the bifurcation of the National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes into two separate bodies: one for Scheduled Castes (SCs) and another for Scheduled Tribes (STs).

Prior to this, the welfare of both SCs and STs was handled by a joint commission, the National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, which had been established under Article 338 of the Indian Constitution.

In 2004, the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes was constituted under Article 338A, giving it the responsibility to safeguard and monitor the interests of STs. The commission is tasked with investigating issues related to the rights and welfare of STs, advising on policies for their development, and inquiring into violations of their rights. It plays a key role in ensuring constitutional safeguards and addressing grievances.
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The National Commission for Minorities (NCM) was established in 1993 by the National Commission for Minorities Act, 1992, to safeguard and promote the rights of India's religious minorities. Initially, the government of India identified six religious communities—Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Parsis, and Jains (added in 2014)—as minorities under the National Commission for Minorities Act.

The NCM was formed to address issues faced by these communities, ensure their constitutional rights, and promote their welfare. The commission is tasked with monitoring the implementation of safeguards provided for minorities in the Constitution and laws, examining complaints of discrimination, and making recommendations for policy changes to the government.

The NCM consists of a chairperson and members appointed by the government, representing various minority communities, and plays a key role in fostering communal harmony and addressing grievances of minority communities across India.

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The National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR) was established in 2007 under the Commissions for Protection of Child Rights Act, 2005. Its primary role is to ensure that the rights and welfare of children are protected and promoted in India. The NCPCR is tasked with:

• Monitoring and ensuring the implementation of laws and policies related to child rights.
• Investigating and addressing complaints and violations related to children's rights.
• Promoting and advocating for the rights of children as outlined in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) and Indian legislation.
• Advising the government on child rights issues and suggesting policy reforms.

The Commission comprises a chairperson and members with expertise in child rights, law, and social work, appointed by the central government. The NCPCR's mandate includes safeguarding children from abuse, neglect, and exploitation, and ensuring their access to education, health, and protection.

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The National Commission for Human Rights (NCHR), formally known as the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) of India, was established on October 12, 1993, under the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993. The need for a human rights body arose in the early 1990s due to rising concerns over human rights violations, both globally and within India, in areas such as custodial violence, discrimination, and abuse of power.

The NHRC was created to investigate human rights abuses, including the right to life, liberty, equality, and dignity, as guaranteed by the Constitution or international covenants. The commission has the power to investigate complaints, intervene in court cases involving human rights issues, and make recommendations to the government.

The NHRC comprises a chairperson, usually a retired Chief Justice of India, along with other members from judicial, human rights, and related fields, who are tasked with protecting and promoting human rights across the country.

The provisions of the Sixth Schedule shall apply to the administration of the tribal areas in the state of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram.

The 89th Amendment of the Constitution of India in 2003 created the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST) by separating it from the National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes:
The amendment created a new Article 338A in the Constitution, which established the NCST.
The amendment also amended Article 338, which established the National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC).

The NCST is a constitutional body that works to improve the lives of tribal groups in India. Some of its functions include:
Improving relief and rehabilitation measures for tribal groups displaced by development projects
Preventing tribal people from being alienated from their land
Ensuring that the Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act of 1996 is fully implemented

Reservation of seat for St in Lok Sabha:

• Madhya Pradesh: 6 seats
• Jharkhand: 5 seats
• Odisha: 5 seats
• Chhattisgarh: 4 seats
• Maharashtra: 4 Seats
• Gujarat: 4 seats
• Rajasthan: 3 seats
• Assam:  2 seats
• Meghalaya: 2 seats
• Arunachal Pradesh: 2 seats
• Telangana: 2 Seats
• West Bengal: 2 seats
• Karnataka: 2
• Sikkim: 1 seat
• Tripura: 1 seats
• Lakshadweep: 1
• Mizoram: 1
• Nagaland: 1 seat
• Andhra Pradesh: 1

EVOLUTION OF THE COMMISSION

Originally, Article 338 of the Constitution provided for the appointment of a Special Officer for Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) to investigate all matters relating to the constitutional safeguards for the SCs and STs and to report to the President on their working3. He was designated as the Commissioner for SCs and STs and assigned the said duty.

In 1978, the Government (through a Resolution) set up a non-statutory multimember Commission for SCs and STs; the Office of Commissioner for SCs and STs also continued to exist.

In 1987, the Government (through another Resolution) modified the functions of the Commission and renamed it as the National Commission for SCs and STs4 .

Later, the 65th Constitutional Amendment Act of 1995 provided for the establishment of a high level multi-member National Commission for SCs and STs in the place of a single Special Officer for SCs and STs. This constitutional body replaced the Commissioner for SCs and STs as well as the Commission set up under the Resolution of 1987.

Again, the 89th Constitutional Amendment Act of 20036 bifurcated the combined National Commission for SCs and STs into two separate bodies, namely, National Commission for Scheduled Castes (under Article 338) and National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (under Article 338-A).

The separate National Commission for SCs came into existence in 2004. It consists of a chairperson, a vice-chairperson and three other members. They are appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and seal. Their conditions of service and tenure of office are also determined by the President.

Source: Indian Polity authored by M. Laxmikanth

Article 243D of the Constitution of India deals with the reservation of seats in Panchayats:

Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes
The number of seats reserved for these groups should be roughly proportional to their population in the area.
Women
At least one-third of the total number of seats should be reserved for women.
Chairpersons
The offices of Chairpersons should be reserved for the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and women.
Legislatures
State Legislatures can make provisions for reserving seats or offices of Chairpersons for backward classes of citizens.
Expiration
The reservation of seats and offices of Chairpersons ends when the period specified in Article 334 expires.

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Article 243T of the Constitution of India deals with the reservation of seats and offices in municipalities. It states that:
Seats
A municipality must reserve seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. The number of reserved seats must be proportional to the population of these groups in the municipality. At least one-third of the reserved seats must be reserved for women from these groups.
Chairpersons
The offices of Chairpersons in municipalities must be reserved for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and women.
The seats can be allotted by rotation to different constituencies in a municipality.

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Article 334 of the Constitution of India states that the reservation of seats and special representation for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the House of the People and in the Legislative Assemblies of the States will end after a certain period. The period of reservation has been extended several times, most recently to 2019 by the 105th Amendment.  

While reservation is an important tool for social justice, efforts should also be made to promote diversity and inclusion in all sectors. This can be achieved by creating a level playing field for all individuals, irrespective of their caste or community.

The revolt of Awadh was a period of armed rebellion against the British in India that took place in 1857 and 1858:

Leaders
Begum Hazrat Mahal, a queen of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, led the revolt in Awadh and Lucknow. Raja Jailal Singh led a band of supporters for Begum Hazrat Mahal.

Events
The revolt began when Begum Hazrat Mahal proclaimed her son, Birjis Qadra, as the Nawab of Awadh. The British recaptured Lucknow after a long siege, forcing Begum Hazrat Mahal to retreat in 1858.

Background
The revolt was part of a larger uprising that began in Meerut with Indian troops serving the British East India Company. It later spread to Delhi, Agra, and Kanpur.
  
Significance
A Study of Popular Resistance (Anthem South Asian Studies) by Rudrangshu Mukherjee is considered one of the best studies of the revolt.