Farakka Barrage
The Farakka Barrage is a barrage constructed across the Ganges River at Farakka in Murshidabad district, West Bengal, India, near the India–Bangladesh border.
Key Facts
- Location: Farakka, Murshidabad, West Bengal
- River: Ganges (Padma in Bangladesh)
- Length: Approximately 2.24 km (2,245 metres)
- Construction Started: 1961
- Commissioned: 1975
- Purpose:
- Divert Ganges water into the Bhagirathi–Hooghly River through the Farakka Feeder Canal.
- Flush silt from the Kolkata Port to maintain its navigability.
- Improve inland navigation and support irrigation.
Why is it Important?
The barrage diverts part of the Ganges' dry-season flow into the Hooghly River. Since Bangladesh is the downstream riparian state, reduced dry-season flows became a major issue in India–Bangladesh relations.
Evolution of the Water-Sharing Arrangements
| Year |
Event |
| 1975 |
Farakka Barrage commissioned. |
| 1977 |
India and Bangladesh signed the Ganges Water Sharing Agreement (5-year agreement). |
| 1982 |
Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) on water sharing. |
| 1985 |
MoU renewed. |
| 1996 |
Ganges Water Sharing Treaty signed for 30 years (valid until 2026). |
1996 Ganges Water Sharing Treaty
- Signed: 12 December 1996
- Prime Ministers:
- India: H. D. Deve Gowda
- Bangladesh: Sheikh Hasina
- Duration: 30 years (1996–2026)
- Objective: To ensure an agreed sharing formula for Ganges water at Farakka during the dry season.
Significance
- One of the most important agreements in India–Bangladesh relations.
- Reduced tensions over dry-season water sharing.
- Demonstrated bilateral cooperation on transboundary rivers.
- Created a framework for monitoring and sharing river flows.
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Indo–US Civil Nuclear Cooperation (2005–2008)
The Indo–US Civil Nuclear Cooperation Agreement, commonly known as the India–US Nuclear Deal or the 123 Agreement, is one of the most significant milestones in India's post-Cold War foreign policy.
It ended India's long-standing nuclear isolation and enabled international civil nuclear cooperation despite India being a non-signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT).
Background
- India conducted Pokhran-II nuclear tests in 1998, after which several countries imposed sanctions.
- Relations between India and the United States improved significantly under Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee and later under Prime Minister Manmohan Singh.
- The agreement recognized India's responsible nuclear record while allowing civil nuclear cooperation without requiring India to join the NPT as a non-nuclear-weapon state.
Timeline
18 July 2005
- Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and U.S. President George W. Bush issued the Joint Statement in Washington, D.C.
- The United States agreed to work towards full civil nuclear cooperation with India.
2006
- The U.S. Congress passed the Hyde Act, enabling civilian nuclear cooperation with India.
2007
- India and the United States finalized the 123 Agreement (under Section 123 of the U.S. Atomic Energy Act).
2008
Three major milestones were achieved:
- India concluded a Safeguards Agreement with the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).
- The Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) granted India a special waiver, permitting nuclear trade despite its non-membership in the NPT.
- The 123 Agreement entered into force after approval by both countries.
Main Features
- Allowed civil nuclear trade between India and the United States.
- India agreed to separate civilian and military nuclear facilities.
- India's civilian nuclear facilities were placed under IAEA safeguards.
- India retained its strategic (military) nuclear programme outside IAEA safeguards.
- The United States agreed to facilitate nuclear fuel, reactors, and technology for peaceful purposes.
Significance
1. Ended India's Nuclear Isolation
- India gained access to global nuclear commerce after decades of restrictions.
2. Strengthened India–US Strategic Partnership
- Marked a turning point in bilateral relations.
3. Energy Security
- Enabled imports of nuclear fuel and reactors to support electricity generation.
4. International Recognition
- India was accepted as a responsible nuclear power despite remaining outside the NPT.
5. Access to Global Nuclear Markets
- Opened opportunities for cooperation with countries such as France, Russia, Canada, Australia, and Japan.
Criticisms
- Some argued that the agreement could affect India's strategic autonomy.
- Concerns were raised regarding dependence on imported nuclear fuel and technology.
- Debate continued over the implications of the Hyde Act and future nuclear testing.
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Sirimavo–Shastri Pact (1964)
The Sirimavo–Shastri Pact, also known as the Indo–Ceylon Agreement of 1964, was an agreement between India and Sri Lanka (then Ceylon) to resolve the issue of stateless persons of Indian origin living in Sri Lanka.
Key Facts
- Agreement: Sirimavo–Shastri Pact (Indo–Ceylon Agreement)
- Signed: 30 October 1964
- Countries: India and Sri Lanka (then Ceylon)
- Signed by:
- India: Lal Bahadur Shastri
- Sri Lanka: Sirimavo Bandaranaike
Background
- During British colonial rule, a large number of Indian Tamil plantation workers were taken to Ceylon to work on tea, rubber, and coffee plantations.
- After Sri Lanka's independence in 1948, many of these people became stateless because they were denied Sri Lankan citizenship.
Main Provisions
The agreement covered approximately 975,000 stateless persons.
- India agreed to grant citizenship to 525,000 persons and repatriate them.
- Sri Lanka agreed to grant citizenship to 300,000 persons.
- The status of the remaining 150,000 persons was left for future negotiations.
Follow-up Agreement
In 1974, another agreement between:
- Indira Gandhi and
- Sirimavo Bandaranaike
resolved the issue of the remaining 150,000 stateless persons, with both countries agreeing to share responsibility equally.
Significance
- Marked an important milestone in India–Sri Lanka relations.
- Addressed the long-standing problem of stateless Indian Tamils.
- Demonstrated peaceful bilateral negotiation on a humanitarian issue.
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India–Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship (1950)
The Treaty of Peace and Friendship (1950) is a bilateral treaty signed between India and Nepal to establish close political, economic, and security relations.
Key Facts
- Treaty: India–Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship
- Signed: 31 July 1950
- Countries: India and Nepal
- Signed at: Kathmandu
- Signatories:
- India: Chandreshwar Prasad Narayan Singh
- Nepal: Mohan Shumsher Jang Bahadur Rana
Background
- Signed shortly after India's independence.
- Intended to strengthen bilateral relations amid changing regional geopolitics.
- Reflected the close historical, cultural, and economic ties between India and Nepal.
Major Provisions
- Perpetual Peace and Friendship
- Both countries agreed to maintain lasting peace and friendly relations.
- Mutual Security Consultation
- Both agreed to inform and consult each other on matters affecting their security.
- Open Border
- Citizens of both countries can move freely across the border without a visa.
- Equal Treatment
- Nationals of each country receive reciprocal treatment in matters such as:
- Residence
- Property
- Trade and commerce
- Movement
- Economic Cooperation
- Encouraged trade, investment, and economic collaboration.
Significance
- Forms the foundation of modern India–Nepal relations.
- Supports one of the world's most open international borders.
- Facilitates strong people-to-people, cultural, and economic ties.
- Provides a framework for defence and security cooperation.
Criticism
- Some political groups in Nepal argue that the treaty is unequal and does not adequately reflect Nepal's sovereignty.
- Nepal has periodically sought a review or revision of the treaty.
- India has expressed its willingness to discuss revisions through mutual agreement.
